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CLASSIFICATION 


CLASSIFICATION 

THEORETICAL  AND  PRACTICAL 

/.    The  Order  of  the  Sciences 
II.    The  Classificaiion  of  Books 


Together  with  an  Appendix  containing  an 

Essay  towards  a  Bibliographical  History 

of  Systems  of  Classification 


ERNEST  CUSHING  RICHARDSON 

Librarian  o/  Princeton  Univertity 


THE    NEIV    YORK  STATE   LIBRARY  SCHOOL 

ASSOCIATION  ALUMNI  LEC TURFS 

1900-1901 


esse  NEW  YORK 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S   SONS- 
igoi 


"% 


Copyright,  1901, 

BY 

Ernest  Gushing  Richardson. 


PREFACE. 

A  WORD  of  explanation  is  due  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Alumni  Association  regarding 
these  lectures.  The  invitation  to  deliver  them 
was  a  double  one;  on  the  one  hand  from  a 
representative  of  the  school  who  wished  some- 
thing on  the  philosophical  order,  which  should 
be  a  contribution  to  the  theory  of  library  sci- 
ence, and  on  the  other  hand  from  a  represen- 
tative of  the  alumni  who  wished  something 
very  practical.  The  lectures  are  the  result  of 
an  attempt  to  meet  both  wishes  even  at  the 
risk  of  falling  between  two  stools. 

There  is  a  perhaps  small,  but  very  earnest, 
number  of  librarians  at  the  present  day  who 
are  extremely  anxious  that  the  rising  gen- 
eration of  librarians  should  be  thoroughly 
grounded  in  the  habit  of  searching  the  his- 
torical and  philosophical  basis  of  their  art  to 
the  very  bottom.  They  believe  that  the  real 
progress  of  things  in  years  to  come  depends 
precisely  on  that  thing,  that  there  is  no  dan- 
ger of  any  neglect  of  the  most  thorough 
study  of  practical  method  in  every  aspect, 
but  that  there  is  danger  that  the  habit  of 
scientific  thought  will  be  neglected.    They  be- 


lieve  as  cordially  as  any  that  the  scholar  with- 
out business  ability  and  training  is  as  much 
out  of  place  in  a  library  as  he  would  be  in 
Wall  Street,  but  they  believe  also  and  with 
equal  conviction  that  the  best  banker  without 
literary  and  scholarly  attainment  is  a  pitiable 
spectacle  as  a  librarian. 

This  view  is  perhaps  held  as  concretely  at 
the  Albany  Library  School  as  anywhere,  al- 
though the  bibliographical  and  even  palaeo- 
graphical  courses  at  Pratt  Institute  and  else- 
where are  strong  symptoms  of  the  same  feel- 
ing. At  the  Albany  school  with  its  nearly 
fifty  students,  every  one  college  trained,  if 
anywhere,  something  of  the  most  scholarly 
possible  work  can  be,  and  is,  attempted  with 
success.  It  was  felt  that  here,  if  anywhere, 
the  attempt  might  be  made  to  present  to  stu- 
dents of  library  science  the  view  that  the  most 
highly  philosophical  treatment  that  can  be 
given  to  its  problems  has  important  bearing 
on  progress  in  the  most  practical  details  of 
the  art. 

It  is  by  no  means  intended  to  claim  that 
these  particular  lectures  represent  adequate 
philosophical  knowledge  or  that  their  conclu- 
sions are  in  any  sense  final.  They  are  simply 
the  thinking  of  this  one  lecturer  along  this 
line.  If  there  is  in  them  any  contribution, 
however  small,  so  much  the  better.    The  point 


of  the  lectures,  however,  was  not  so  much  to 
reach  results  as  to  incite  others  to  scholarly 
work.  If  the  lectures  fail  to  reach  this  end, 
whether  through  being  too  scholastic  or  for 
any  other  reason,  it  will  be  a  matter  of  regret 
to  the  lecturer,  but  it  will  be  his  fault,  not  the 
fault  of  the  principle. 

Of  these  lectures  it  may  perhaps  be  said 
with  some  degree  of  reason  that  a  pure  dis- 
cussion of  the  order  of  the  sciences  seems  to 
belong  rather  to  the  college  course  itself  than 
to  a  library  school  course.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  however,  the  student  in  college  does  not 
get  this  —  at  least  does  not  get  it  in  that  in- 
tensely practical  way  in  which  it  comes  to 
those  whose  life  work  will  be  the  interpreta- 
tion of  a  system,  or  perhaps  helping  in  the 
evolution  of  a  new  system. 

As  regards  the  matter  in  itself  considered, 
one  may  sustain  the  thesis  that  it  is  as  nec- 
essary for  a  thoroughly  first  class  librarian  to 
know  the  philosophical  order  and  divisions  of 
the  sciences  as  it  is  for  a  bridge-builder  to 
know  Mechanics.  Those  librarians  therefore 
who  say  that  they  "do  not  see  the  use"  of  the 
study  of  incunabula,  palaeography,  the  laws 
(rather  than  the  rules)  of  classification,  the 
history  of  libraries,  ethics  and  social  condi- 
tions as  governing  and  governed  by  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  books,  the  theory 


of  literature,  etc.,  etc.,  have  an  undoubted 
right  to  their  point  of  view,  but  that  point 
of  view  is  not  the  one  calculated  to  produce 
a  true  librarian. 

There  are  those  who  seem  to  think  that 
anything  scholarly  leads  to  unpracticality  be- 
cause many  of  the  men  represented  to  be  most 
learned  are  unpractical.  But  are  there  none 
unpractical  among  the  ignorant?  Learning 
which  is  not  practical  is  not  scholarly  but 
scholastic.  Of  learning  which  is  practical 
there  cannot  be  too  much  in  any  trade.  Other 
things  being  equal  —  heredity,  personality  and 
common  sense  —  the  more  "learned"  a  libra- 
rian is  the  better  he  will  buy,  the  better  or- 
ganize his  treasury,  secretaryship,  shelf  and 
delivery  and  all  the  other  departments,  the 
better  too  will  his  books  be  cataloged,  clas- 
sified and  used. 

Since  the  lectures  were  delivered  two  ob- 
servations have  been  made  which  require  no- 
tice here.  Mr.  E.  M.  Fairchild,  of  the  Albany 
Educational  Church  Board,  has,  apropos 
of  the  question  of  the  natural  order,  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  new  educators, 
not  only  in  colleges  but  in  secondary  schools, 
are  coming  to  arrange  their  lines  of  teaching 
according  to  the  "natural"  order  of  the  sci- 
ences. It  follows  that  if  the  system  of  clas- 
sification in  vogue  in  any  library  is  at  variance 


in  any  way  with  the  order  in  use  in  the 
schools  the  librarian  must  be  all  the  more  in- 
timate with  the  scientific  order  to  the  end  that 
he  may  harmonize,  so  far  as  possible,  with  his 
library  classification  and  may  guide  pupils 
who  are  in  the  habit  of  thinking  in  another 
order.  The  use,  therefore,  which  the  library 
student  will  find  for  a  somewhat  intimate 
familiarity  with  the  relations  of  the  sciences, 
theoretically  considered,  will  not  be  limited 
by  the  use  in  making  or  altering  a  classifica- 
tion or  even,  what  is  its  chief  practical  use,  in 
classifying  into  it,  but  will  extend  to  all  sorts 
of  reference  work,  from  that  of  helping  the 
special  student  down  to  that  of  helping  the 
primary  school  child  —  or  his  teacher. 

The  second  observation  which  calls  for  no- 
tice in  this  preface  is  a  remark  that  "coming 
from  Princeton  campus"  the  lectures  may,  in 
some  mysterious  way,  be  calculated  to  cast  an 
"odium  theologicum"  somewhere.  The  inten- 
tion of  the  lecture  was  distinctly  to  stop  with 
the  merest  reference  to  theology,  and  it  was 
supposed  that  even  this  reference  had  been 
sufficiently  guarded  in  speaking  of  it  as  the 
"theory  known  as  Christianity,"  etc.  How- 
ever, in  the  fear  that  there  may  still  lurk 
something  explosive  in  the  handling  of  so 
dangerous  a  subject,  even  in  small  quanti- 
ties, and  thereby  unjust  responsibility  be  cast 


on  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
whose  professors  the  lecturer  is  honored  to 
know,  but  with  whom  he  has  no  official  con- 
nection whatever,  or  even  odium,  theological, 
philosophical  or  otherwise,  be  cast  on  the 
University  with  which  he  is  connected,  I  has- 
ten to  say  that  nobody  connected  with  Prince- 
ton save  the  lecturer  himself  is  responsible 
for  these  views  or  has  even  heard  that  he  has 
them.  Whether  the  possible  odium  is  because 
the  views  are  too  orthodox  or  because  they 
are  too  heterodox,  informant  saith  not. 

It  should  perhaps  be  noted  that  usage, 
which  seemed  fluctuating  as  to  "ions"  or 
"corpuscles"  when  these  lectures  were  writ- 
ten, now  seems  to  have  settled  on  "corpus- 
cles" for  fractional  atoms. 

Orthographic  usage  is  somewhat  influenced 
by  the  preferences  of  the  Library  Journal, 
where  these  lectures  were  first  published  in 
part. 

Ernest  Gushing  Richardson. 


Princbtoh  University  Library,  I 


March  20, 1901. 


CONTENTS 

Preface v 

Table  of  contents xi 

Introduction. 

1.  The  nature  of  classification..  i 

2.  Kinds  of  classification 8 

3.  Laws  or  principles  of  classi- 

fication   II 

Lecture  L    The  order  of  the  sciences. 

I.  Divisions  and  unity 17 

IL  The  order  of  the  sciences  the 

order  of  things 18 

in.  Organic  unity 22 

IV.  Things  past  and  things  pres- 
ent   24 

V.  Ideas  as  things 26 

VI.  The  ordering  of  ideas 27 

VII.  An  hypothetical  order 29 

VIII.  Cosmic  history 33 

IX.  The  order  of  complexity '39 

X.  The  order  stated 43 


xu 
Lecture  II.    The  classification  of  books. 
I.  Book  classification  an  art...     46 
II.  Book  classification  and  card 

classification 51 

III.  The  objects  and  importance 

of  book  classification 53 

IV.  The  kinds  of  book  classifica- 

tion       60 

V.  Likeness  between  theoretical 
classification  and  book  clas- 
sification       67 

VI.  Differences  between  theoreti- 
cal classification  and  book 

classification 69 

I.  Making  the  schedules..     69 

(a)  Modification  by  cir- 

cumstances      70 

(b)  Variation     arisi  n  g 

from  the  nature  of 
books 72 

(c)  Differences    arising 

from  intended  use.    74 
(l)  Adjustment 
to    build- 
ing      74 


xm 

Lecture  II. — Continued. 

(2)  The  princi- 

ples  of 
s  u  b  d  ivi- 
sion 76 

(3)  The    ques- 

t  i  on  of 
d  eg  r ee 
and  p  r  o- 
portion  in 
s  u  b  d  ivi- 
sion 77 

2.  Making  a  notation 80 

3.  Qassification  of  the  card 

catalogue 83 

4.  The     classification     o  f 

books  on  the  shelves . .    83 

5.  The  putting  of  the  books 

in  their  classes 85 

VII.  Criteria  of  a  practical  book 

classification 86 

VIII.  Conclusion 87 

Appendix.    Systems  of  classification. 
I.  Method 91 


XIV 

Appendix. — Continued. 

II.  Classification     of     classifica- 
tions     93 

III.  Literature  referred  to 94 

IV.  Theoretical  systems 100 

V.  Practical  systems 153 

VI.  Systems    of    current    biblio- 
graphical periodicals 232 

VII.  Partial  systems  of  classifica- 
tion    234 

VIII.  Systems  of  alphabetical  clas- 
sification    235 

Index 237 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  NATURE,  KINDS  AND  LAWS  OF  CLASSIFICA- 
TION. 

First  by  way  of  introduction,  a  definition  of 
terms  relating  to  the  nature,  the  kinds  and 
the  underlying  principles  or  laws  of  classifi- 
cation. 

I.      THE   NATURE  OF  CLASSIFICATION. 

Classification  is  in  its  simplest  statement  the 
putting  together  of  like  things,  or  more  fully 
described,  it  is  the  arranging  of  things  ac- 
cording to  likeness  and  linlikeness.  It  may 
also  be  expressed  as  the  sorting  and  grouping 
of  things.  It  is  convenient  sometimes,  to 
speak,  of  "likeness  and  unlikeness"  but  really 
in  classification  it  is  "likeness"  which  rules 
while  "unlikeness"  is  merely  what  is  left  over 
when  likeness  has  been  defined.  The  "put- 
ting together  of  like  things"  is  therefore  the 
fullest  and  most  exact  form  of  the  definition. 

So  simple  an  act  as  the  putting  away  of  a 
handful  of  change  in  one's  purse  contains  the 
gist  of  a  process  through  which  every  thing 
and  every  thought  in  the  universe  has  come 


into  being  —  the  paper  money  is  put  in  one 
compartment,  the  coin  in  another  and  then 
perhaps  the  coin  is  subdivided  again  by  put- 
ting the  gold,  silver,  nickel,  or  copper  each  in 
a  separate  compartment.  If  the  money  is  to 
be  counted,  it  will  probably  be  laid  on  a  table, 
in  groups  of  paper,  gold,  silver,  etc.,  these 
groups  arranged  according  to  value  into  one 
and  two  cent  pieces  copper;  three  and  five 
nickel ;  ten,  twenty-five,  fifty  and  one  dollar 
silver;  and  so  on  with  gold  and  paper.  Into 
each  group  will  be  put  all  the  pieces  of  like 
material  and  like  value.  The  money  in  this 
act  is  fully  classified,  its  pieces  have  all  been 
put  together  according  to  likeness,  first  ac- 
cording to  material  and  then  according  to 
value. 

This  is  a  mechanical  example  of  what 
actually  goes  on  in  every  process  of  classifica- 
tion whether  of  ideas  or  things.  It  represents 
also  the  real  order  of  arrangement  of  things 
in  the  universe  —  a  series  of  groups  and 
grroups  of  groups  arranged  according  to  de- 
gree of  likeness  from  the  simplest  to  the  most 
complex.  What  this  process  leads  to  will  be 
discussed  under  the  order  of  the  sciences,  but 
the  process  is  the  same  all  along  the  line. 

The  object  at  which  classification  aims  is 
in  every  case  order  or  system  and  its  result 
is  called  a  system.     It  starts  facing  a  disorder- 


3 

ly  mass,  and  aims  to  reduce  this  to  an  orderly 
whole. 

If  this  is  classification  what  then  is  a 
thing  ? 

A  thing  as  subject  for  classification  is  what- 
ever is;  that  is  to  say  whatever  has  separate 
existence.  Whether  its  substance  is  matter  or 
motion  or  spirit  is  indifferent.  If  it  is,  it  may 
be  classified,  and  if  it  can  be  classified  it 
must  be  that  it  is.  That  is  the  whole  of  it. 
Identity,  sameness,  and  thing-ness  are  one 
and  the  same  thing.  The  characteristic  of  a 
thing  is  that  it  is  itself.  It  is  a  and  it  is  not 
b.  It  is  discrete,  separate  and  in  short  sub- 
ject to  definition. 

Ideas  are  therefore  the  subjects  of  classifi- 
cation just  as  much  as  anything  else  not  only 
because  they  have  a  material  as  well  as  a 
spiritual  substance  but  because  they  are  in- 
dividual separate  things  existing  in  a  certain 
place  at  a  certain  time  in  a  certain  definable 
nature. 

Things  therefore  as  the  subject  of  classifi- 
cation include  the  things  in  man  and  the 
things  outside.  The  things  outside  include  in 
turn  the  things  which  make  man  (nature  and 
environment)  and  the  things  which  man 
makes  or  art.  Things  therefore  include  na- 
ture, ideas  and  art.  Of  these  man  has  to  do 
only  with  ideas  and  art.     The  things  of  na- 


4 

ture  are  already  classified,  but  this  classifica- 
tion according  to  nature  may  be  rearranged 
by  man  and  this  is  art,  whether  it  is  plowing, 
or  breeding,  the  making  of  houses,  paintings 
or  books,  or  yet  the  reorganization  of  a  man's 
ideas  in  education. 

Ideas  themselves  are  therefore  of  two  sorts, 
corresponding  with  the  two  kinds  of  outer 
things,  nature  and  art.  One  kind  is  facing 
nature  and  the  other  is  facing  art,  but  the 
operation  with  either  sort  is  one  of  classifica- 
tion. Classification  of  ideas  on  the  one  hand 
facing  nature  is  knowledge,  and  when  carried 
to  perfection  is  called  science.  The  classifi- 
cation of  ideas  on  the  other  hand  into  a 
group  which  never  yet  has  had  any  likeness  in 
the  outer  world,  but  may  have,  and  is  in- 
tended to  have,  is  art.  The  true  classification 
of  the  ideas  of  things  that  have  been,  in  short 
the  classification  of  the  sciences,  is  simply  the 
order  of  nature  paralleled.  The  classifica- 
tion into  new  ideas  or  art  is  by  this  same 
token  not  an  imitation  of  nature  and  is  end- 
less in  possible  variety. 

It  must  be  remembered  in  this  connec- 
tion that  from  the  standpoint  of  the  indi- 
vidual, i.  e.,  the  standpoint  of  knowledge, 
everything  is  an  outside  thing  to  a  man. save 
his  own  ideas  (and  perhaps  even  the  major 
part  of  his .  own  ideas.)     Everybody's  ideas 


5 

save  his  own  and  all  art,  even  his  own  if 
represented  in  outer  things,  is  "nature."  His 
business  is  first  to  get  within  himself  exact 
ideas  of  these  things  and  second  to  classify 
these  exact  ideas  into  a  series  which  shall  it- 
self be  an  exact  idea  of  the  order  of  outer 
things.  As  a  race  and  as  an  individual  man 
gets  his  ideas  belter  skelter.  When  he  starts 
to  think  they  are  a  disorderly  mass,  a  chaos 
of  ideas  which  he  must  reduce  to  order  by 
classification.  The  final  goal  of  his  effort  is 
exact  ideas  of  everything  that  is,  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  real  order  of  things  in  the 
universe;  the  idea,  in  short,  of  the  whole  of 
things,  a  whole  which  includes  ideas  and  art 
as  well  as  nature.  The  process  to  that  end 
is  classification  or  the  putting  together  ac- 
cording to  likeness. 

What  then  again  is  likeness? 

Likeness,  as  the  ground  of  the  putting  to- 
gether of  things  in  classification  is,  in  brief 
terms,  interchangeability  —  the  state  in  which 
some  portion  or  element  of  any  two  things 
is  such  that  it  can  be  taken  from  one  and  put 
in  the  other  and  vice  versa  without  changing 
the  real  character  of  each.  A  homely  exam- 
ple of  this  is  the  Waltham  watch.  Take  two 
machine-made  watches  of  the  better  type,  they 
are  so  nearly  alike  in  all  their  details  that  any 
part  of  one  may  be  exchanged  for  the  like 


part  of  the  other,  or  vice  versa,  and  both 
watches  will  still  go  as  before.  They  are 
alike  in  all  essential  parts. 

Likeness  is  to  be  distinguished  from  iden- 
tity or  sameness  on  the  one  hand  and  from 
similarity  or  resemblance  on  the  other.  Note 
therefore  in  the  case  of  the  watch  that  the 
pieces  exchanged  are  not  "the  same"  or  "iden- 
tical," but  "like"  pieces,  and  note  also  that  a 
v&riation  of  the  most  trifling  kind  might  stop 
both  watches.  The  pieces  must  on  the  one 
hand  do  more  than  resemble  or  be  similar. 
They  must  be  alike.  They  must  on  the  other 
hand  be  less  than  the  "same"  piece,  otherwise 
only  one  watch  could  be  kept  going  at  a  time. 
Likeness  therefore  is  neither  identity  nor 
mere  resemblance. 

Likeness  thus  on  the  one  hand  is  less  than 
identity  or  sameness.  One  might  possibly  call 
identity  "absolute  likeness,"  i.  c,  likeness  in 
every  conceivable  respect  including  the  posi- 
tion of  each  of  its  smallest  parts  in  space,  but 
this  is  forcing  language.  In  this  state  it  is 
the  same  substance.  Absolute  likeness,  or 
likeness  complete  in  every  respect,  including 
position  in  space  is  not  to  be  distinguished 
from  thingness  itself,  and  is  better  called  iden- 
tity, or  sameness. 

Likeness  might  perhaps  be  described  as 
identity  in  kind  but  not  in  substance.     Like 


7 

things  are  of  the  same  kind,  but  not  the  same 
substance,  and  here  is  where  a  mistake  is 
oftenest  made.  We  say  loosely  that  two  gold 
pieces  are  made  from  the  same  substance. 
They  are  not ;  they  are  made  of  like  sub- 
stances or  the  same  kind  of  substance,  but 
every  molecule  of  gold  is  a  separate  thing  by 
itself  and  perhaps  even  every  atom  and  every 
ion  of  it.  Like  things  are  not  the  same  but 
equal,  and  perhaps  the  fundamental  law  o£ 
the  determination  of  likeness  might  be  de- 
scribed as  the  law  that  things  equal  to  the 
same  things  are  equal  to  one  another.  Like- 
ness is  therefore  less  than  identity. 

Likeness  on  the  other  hand  is  more  than 
resemblance  or  similarity.  These  latter  may 
be  well  described  as  partial  likeness.  Things 
are  more  or  less  alike  according  to  the  amount 
which  they  have  in  common,  i.  e.  the  amount 
which  can  be  taken  from  the  one  and  put  in 
the  other  without  material  disturbance.  It  is 
a  mere  question  of  subtraction  or  better  of 
algebraic  substitution.  The  difference  there- 
fore between  likeness  and  resemblance  is  the 
difference  between  exactly  alike,  very  much 
alike  and  more  or  less  alike. 

We  mean  thus  ordinarily  by  likeness  or 
exact  likeness,  such  degree  of  likeness  that  no 
test  or  experiment  which  we  can  apply  will 
reveal  any  condition  under  which  one  cannot 


8 

be  substituted  for  the  other.  We  do  not  ex- 
haust likeness  even  in  this  since  even  the 
minutest  atom,  which  can  be  substituted  for 
any  other  atom  of  the  same  kind  in  every 
known  chemical  compound  is  supposed  to  re- 
semble its  other  atoms  not  as  shot  does^  shot, 
but  as  two  grains  of  sand,  each  with  its  own 
individualities. 

2.      KINDS  OF  CLASSIFICATION. 

Classification  being  the  putting  of  things 
together  according  to  likeness,  there  may  be 
as  many  kinds  of  classification  as  there  are 
kinds  of  likeness. 

Likeness  may  be  in  respect  of  mass  or 
weight,  it  may  be  likeness  of  form  or  shape 
(t.  e.,  all  circles,  crosses,  etc.,  together),  like- 
ness of  color  (black  and  white  marbles  or 
children  in  a  school),  likeness  in  size  (^.  g., 
grenadier  rfegiments),  in  hardness  (your  lead 
pencils),  in  brittleness  (table  ware),  in  elas- 
ticity (golf  balls),  in  conductivity  (insula- 
tors). It  may  be  in  transparency,  specific 
gravity,  radiating  power  or  what  not. 

The  likeness  may  be  one  of  position  in 
space  (geographical),  or  position  in  time 
(chronological),  or  of  origin  (genetic),  or  of 
power  (dynamic). 

The  series  in  likeness  which  is  formed  may 


9 

be  in  respect  of  quality  (better  or  worse), 
quantity  (more  or  less),  extent  or  duration 
(longer  or  shorter),  position  (near  or  far). 

In  every  case  a  series  is  formed  by  taking 
from  many  things  what  is  common  to  each 
and  letting  the  more  like  follow  the  less  like 
or  vice  versa. 

Where  the  likeness  is  one  which  is  essential, 
which  resides  in  the  very  character  of  the 
thing  itself,  the  classification  is  called  natural 
or  logical  classification;  and  this  is,  in  fact, 
a  classification  according  to  the  total  amount 
of  likeness.  Classification  according  to  some 
single  mark  of  likeness  is  partial  classification, 
while  arrangment  according  to  some  acci- 
dental feature  is  artificial  classification  —  the 
most  familiar  example  of  this  being  the  al- 
phabetical classification.  Partial  and  artificial 
are  often  not  distinguished. 

The  commonest  kinds  of  classification  are: 

(l.)  The  Logical  Classification,  or  classifi- 
cation according  to  degree  of  likeness  from 
most  complex  to  the  simplest.  This  is  to  be 
regarded  as  forming  one  face  of  what  is 
known  as  Natural  Classification  and  of  which 
evolution  is  the  opposite  face.  Each  regards 
all  elements  of  real  likeness,  but  the  logical 
leads  the  series  along  the  path  of  the  real 
order  of  things  back  from  the  most  complex 
to  the  simplest,  from  the  now  back  to  the 


10 

beginning  of  things,  whereas  evolution  leads 
it  forward  over  the  same  ground. 

(2.)  Geometrical  ClassiHcation  is  classi- 
fication according  to  the  order  of  position  in 
space.  It  is  founded  on  the  fact  that  every 
atom  of  the  universe  at  a  given  instant  of 
time  has  a  definite  geometrical  position  with 
reference  to  every  other  atom.  Its  common- 
est form  is  the  geographical,  which  arranges 
together  all  men,  horses,  cats,  dogs,  trees, 
etc.,  in  given  geometrical  position  on  the 
earth's  surface. 

(3.)  Chronological  ClassHication,  or  clas- 
sification according  to  position  in  time,  is 
founded  on  the  fact  that  at  every  successive 
instant  of  time  every  atom  in  the  universe 
has  a  changed  position  with  reference  to  every 
other  atom.  It  groups  together  all  things  ex- 
tant at  a  given  time,  e.  g.,  all  men  born  on  a 
certain  day.  Its  commonest  example  is  a 
table  of  dates. 

(4.)  Genetic  Classification  is  the  grouping 
according  to  likeness  of  origin  and  is  seen 
every  day  in  family  history. 

(5.)  Historical  Classification  combines  the 
chronological,  the  geographical  and  the  gene- 
tic ideas  and  arranges,  (i)  according  to  posi- 
tion in  space,  (2)  according  to  order  in  time, 
(3)  according  to  the  order  of  genesis. 

This  carried  to  its  highest  power  results  in : 


II 

(6.)  Evolutionary  ClassiUcation  or  classifi- 
cation according  to  the  order  of  likeness  from 
the  simplest  to  the  most  complex.  This  is 
as  has  been  said  the  complement  of  logical 
classification  and  both  are  faces  of  the  one 
"natural"  order. 

To  these  familiar  general  forms  should  per- 
haps be  added : 

(7.)  Dynamic  Classification,  or  classifica- 
tion according  to  the  order  of  power. 

(8.)  Alphabetical  Classification,  or  classi- 
fication according  to  the  letters  of  names  — 
one  of  the  commonest  of  artificial  classifica- 
tions.   And 

(9.)  Mathematical  Classification,  or  classi- 
fication according  to  the  order  of  numerical 
symbols  —  the  prince  of  artificial  classifica- 
tions and  servant  of  all  the  natural  classifica- 
tions. 

3.      LAWS  OR  PRINCIPLES  OF  CLASSIFICATION. 

A  law  is  simply  the  way  in  which  things 
are  in  the  habit  of  acting.  It  may  be  defined 
as  the  like  action  of  like  things  under  like 
circumstances.  Any  given  law  is  simply  the 
historical  fact  that  certain  things  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  act  in  a  certain  way.  The 
idea  of  law  is  that  things  having  always 
acted  in  this  way  may  be  expected  to  act  in 
this  way  in  the  future,  although  there  is  no 


12 

guarantee  of  this,  because  some  other  "law" 
may  come  in  to  modify. 

A  law  is  distinguished  from  an  hypothesis 
or  a  theory  simply  by  the  number  of  times 
that  a  given  thing  has  been  known  to  hap- 
pen. If  like  things  under  like  circumstances 
are  seen  to  act  in  like  fashion  two  or  more 
times,  we  affirm  an  hypothesis.  Care  is  then 
taken  to  note  exactly,  when  it  happens  again, 
whether  things  and  circumstances  are  exactly 
alike  and  whether  the  resulting  action  is  still 
like  those  before  noticed.  When  experiments 
have  been  carried  to  every  conceivable  extent, 
it  becomes  a  law.  The  shades  of  meaning  be- 
tween hypothesis,  theory,  law  and  principle 
are  such  that  one  cannot  quarrel  much  with 
the  interchange  of  bordering  ones  although 
one  must  try  and  stop  short  of  the  inter- 
change of  hypothesis  and  law  and  principle. 

Among  the  chief  principles  or  laws  which 
have  to  be  taken  into  account  in  classification 
are, 

(i.)  The  law  of  likeness.  Likeness  is  the 
universal  principle  of  the  order  of  things. 
Things  are  either  already  put  together  accord- 
ing to  likeness  in  nature  or  they  are  put  to- 
gether by  man  in  his  mind  or  in  outer  mater- 
ial. Things  arranged  according  to  likeness 
without  the  aid  of  man  are  nature.  Ideas  ar- 
ranged according  to  likeness  are  knowledge. 


13 

Outer  things  arranged  by  man  according  to 
likeness  are  art.  In  every  case  the  true  like- 
ness is  the  one  which  determines  order. 

In  nature  or  outer  things  unmodified  by 
rran  this  principle  of  likeness  reigns  in  math- 
ematics in  the  law  that  things  like  the 
same  thing  are  like  one  another,  in  physics 
according  to  the  law  that  like  masses  attract 
in  like  manner.  The  most  familiar  example 
of  this  is  a  pair  of  scales  where  if  the  masses 
in  each  pan  are  equal  they  are  equally  at- 
tracted by  the  earth.  If  they  are  unlike  in 
mass,  the  amount  which  constitutes  likeness 
balances,  but  the  remainder  of  mass  is  also 
attracted  and  having  no  counterpoise  ap- 
proaches the  earth. 

The  law  reigns  again  in  nature  in  the  mag- 
netic and  electric  laws  that  like  quantities 
attract  (or  repel)  equally.  It  reigns  again  in 
the  law  of  chemical  affinity  according  to 
which  like  atoms  attract  more  strongly  than 
unlike  and  the  more  complex  a  molecule  the 
more  unstable  it  is. 

The  principle  of  likeness  in  living  things 
takes  the  form  of  the  law  of  genesis,  or  that 
like  begets  like,  and  the  complementary  law 
of  homology  that  real  likeness  among  things 
indicates  common  ancestry. 

Among  ideas  likeness  is  the  foundation  of 
all  thought  and  every  variation  of  the  act  of 


14 

thought  can  be  summed  up  according  to 
Bain  into  likeness,  unlikeness  and  retentive- 
ness,  or  according  to  Spencer  into  likeness, 
unlikeness  and  integration.  Likeness  is  so 
the  essence  of  all  human  thought,  that  liter- 
ally there  is  no  smallest  act  of  the  human 
mind  which  cannot  be  analyzed  into  just  this 
operation  of  distinguishing  like  and  unlike 
and  either  holding  to  or  rejecting.  Likeness 
in  particular  is  the  foundation  of  that  sys- 
tematic thought  carried  to  its  ultimate  which 
we  call  logic. 

And  what  is  true  of  science  is  also  true  of 
art,  that  every  artistic  impression  is  mere- 
ly a  classification  of  presentations  of  likeness 
and  unlikeness.  What  we  see  in  a  landscape 
can  be  resolved  into  terms  of  contrast  of  light 
and  shade. 

Indeed  the  law  of  likeness  carries  itself  into 
the  active  personality  as  well,  for  here  it  is 
that  character  resolves  itself  simply  into 
choice,  the  classification  of  things  into  like 
and  dislike  and  the  integration  of  the  like. 
Action  itself  is  choice,  or  the  classification 
according  to  like  and  unlike. 

In  the  field  of  Sociology,  enlarging  from 
the  sphere  of  individual  character  to  the  na- 
ture of  men  as  a  whole,  it  may  be  said  that 
all  social  relations,  economic  and  political, 
are  founded  according  to  the  latest  opinion 


15 

upon  the  fact  of  likeness,  or,  if  you  choose, 
the  consciousness  of  likeness,  the  "con- 
sciousness of  kind,"  as  Mr.   Giddings  says. 

Likeness  is  therefore  characteristic  of  all 
things  and  its  law  may  be  expressed  as  the 
law  that  all  things  in  the  universe  are  or- 
ganized according  to  their  likeness.  Many  if 
not  most  laws  are  so  to  speak  sub-laws  of  this 
and  among  those  especially  interesting  in  our 
task  are:  (a)  The  law  that  things  like  the 
same  things  are  like  each  other,  (b)  The  law 
that  like  draws  like,  (c)  The  law  that  like 
begets  like,  and  (d)  The  law  that  true  like- 
ness points  to  a  common  ancestry. 

(2.)  The  second  general  principle  useful 
for  our  task  is  the  historical  law  that  the  pro- 
gress of  things  in  space  and  time  is  also  in 
general  a  genetic  progress  in  complexity. 

(3.)  The  law  of  evolution  adds  to  the  law 
of  history  the  observation  that  the  law  of 
historical  progress  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex  holds  good  of  all  things  which  tend 
toward  continued  existence.  In  the  general 
use  of  the  word  it  is  a  complex  including 
the  ideas,  (1)  of  logical  progress  in  com- 
plexity, (2)  progress  in  space  and  time  cor- 
responding with  progress  in  complexity  so 
that  the  order  of  complexity  is  also  the  order 
of  appearance  in  time,  (3)  the  genesis  of  the 
more  from  the  less  complex,   (4)  growth  in 


i6 

complexity  the  condition  of  life,  and  (5)  de- 
generation which  is  the  complement  to  evolu- 
tion proper  and  adds  the  fact  that  wherever 
things  are  not  growing  in  complexity  they  are 
proceeding  toward  dissolution.  The  net  result 
of  the  law  is  the  doctrine  that  in  the  long 
run  those  things  which  are  constantly  grow- 
ing in  complexity  continue  to  have  existence 
while  others  perish. 

These  laws  or  principles  are  as  you  see 
simply  a  sort  of  resume  of  what  went  before 
as  they  are  the  foundation  of  what  is  to  fol- 
low. 


LECTURE   I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  THE  SCIENCES. 

I.      DIVISIONS  AND  UNITY. 

The  order  of  the  sciences  involves  two 
things,  first,  divisions,  groups  or  classes;  sec- 
ond, unity  or  order.  The  end  is  a  whole, 
the  process  is  a  defining  of  classes  and  the 
binding  of  these  classes  together  into  a  whole. 
Each  function  of  the  process  is  a  putting  to- 
gether according  to  likeness.  The  division  of 
the  sciences  and  the  putting  of  them  together, 
are  alike  classification.  The  end  in  view  is  an 
organic  whole  in  which  there  is  a  place  for 
everything  and  everjrthing  in  its  place.  This 
organic  whole  of  sciences  is  science.  It  is  a 
whole  of  parts,  a  one  from  many,  and  the  or- 
der of  the  sciences  is  a  description  of  the 
relative  place  which  each  part  holds  in  the 
organism. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  all  the  time  through 
this  discussion  that  sciences  are  not  separate 
things,  but  only  divisions  in  the  sense  that  a 
man's  hands,  feet,  eyes,  etc.,  are  parts  of  a 
whole.  Every  man  is  a  unity.  A  distinction 
between  hand  and  wrist  is  practical  and  use- 


i8 

ful,  but  who  shall  say  just  where  hand  stops 
and  wrist  begins?  So  to  of  science  and  the 
"branches  of  knowledge."  Who  shall  say 
where  the  trunk  stops  and  the  branches  be- 
gin? 

The  phrase,  "Classification  of  the  Sciences," 
seems  to  point  rather  towards  a  division  into 
groups,  the  "Order  of  the  Sciences"  toward 
a  united  whole  without,  however,  losing  the 
idea  of  its  being  a  whole  of  parts.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  "Order"  instead  of  "Classifi- 
cation" has  been  chosen  as  caption  for  this 
lecture,  for  it  is  likeness  which  rules,  not 
unlikeness,  unity  not  variety,  and  classes  are 
sure  soon  to  overstep  one  another's  boun- 
daries and  get  out  of  perspective  unless  a  final 
unity  is  held  constantly  in  view.  The  real 
problem  is  one  of  unity,  for  the  rough  groups 
which  every  one  can  pick  out  at  a  glance  only 
adjust  themselves  within  their  own  boun- 
daries and  to  one  another  in  their  adjustment 
to  the  whole. 


n.      THE  ORDER  OF  THE  SCIENCES  THE  ORDER  OF 
THINGS. 

The  first  thing  to  be  remembered  in  trying 
to  get  at  the  divisions  and  unity  of  the  sci- 
ences, whether  one  in  prosecution  of  the  task 
is  facing  toward  divisions  or  toward  unity,  is 


19 

the  fact  that  the  order  of  sciences  is  the  order 
of  things.  The  science  itself  is  nothing  apart 
from  the  things  or  facts  with  which  it  deals. 
To  define  a  science  one  must  define  the  group 
of  facts  with  which  it  deals.  When  a  line 
has  been  drawn  around  any  group  of  facts 
then  the  science  is  simply  the  analysis  and 
classification  of  those  facts,  the  placing  them 
in  their  true  order  within  the  boundary. 
What  is  true  of  any  one  science  is  true  also 
of  the  whole  of  the  sciences.  It  depends  di- 
rectly on  the  whole  of  things.  The  bottom 
fact  thus  from  which  attention  must  never 
be  diverted  in  this  search  is  the  fact  that  the 
order  of  the  sciences  is  simply  a  counterpart 
of  the  order  of  things. 

It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  chief 
drawback  to  progress  in  the  conception  of  the 
whole  of  things  has  been  this  very  confusion 
between  the  inner  realm  of  ideas  and  the 
outer  realm  of  things.  Men  have  somehow 
looked  on  their  own  ideas  as  the  place  where 
the  order  of  things  was  to  be  discovered,  and 
many  systems  of  classification,  such,  e.  g.,  as 
that  of  Bacon,  have  been  founded  on  subjec- 
tive laws.  It  is,  of  course,  within  the  mind's 
sphere  of  ideas  that  a  man  must  work.  He 
does  not  deal  with  the  things  themselves  di- 
rectly so  much  as  with  little  brain  maps  (brain 
drawings  or  brain  models,  so  to  speak)  of  the 


20 

things  themselves.  Yet  at  the  same  time  it 
is  true  that  these  very  brain  maps  themselves 
have  no  meaning  or  value  save  as  they  are 
true  and  complete  images  of  the  outer  reali- 
ty. It  is  the  outer  universe  which  is  the  start- 
ing point  and  fixed  factor  of  all  the  search 
for  order.  As  the  inner  idea  corresponds  with 
the  real  fact  or  truth  or  not,  it  is  worthy  or 
worthless. 

If  perchance  any  man's  ideas  were  ever  per- 
fectly true  and  complete  then  the  problem 
of  order  would  be  simple  enough  and  could 
be  performed  wholly  within  the  cloister  of  his 
own  mind.  It  would  then  be  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  putting  together  a  picture  puzzle 
or  "assembling"  the  parts  of  a  locomotive, 
and  there  is  in  fact  a  theory  of  "innate  ideas" 
which  supposes  just  this,  that  every  man  is 
born  into  the  world  with  just  such  a  stock 
of  ideas  or  intuitions,  perfect  in  quality  and 
quantity.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  no 
one  will  deny  that  a  man's  ideas,  whether  in- 
born or  not  (and  the  Librarian  thinks  that 
there  are  inborn  ideas),  and  whether  they 
are  true-born  or  not  (and  the  Librarian 
thinks  that  they  are  not  true-born),  are  cer- 
tainly not  true  by  the  time  the  man  gets  to 
the  reflective  age.  So  far  from  being  true 
that  the  problem  is  simply  that  of  assembling 
the  finished  parts  of  a  locomotive,  it  is  more 
like  arranging  the  battered  and  twisted  frag- 


31 

ments  of  a  locomotive  after  a  wreck.  The 
only  way  that  it  can  be  done  at  all  is  by  com- 
paring with  the  original  model,  hammering 
and  forging  twisted  ideas  and  supplying  lost 
ones.  But  men  forget  this.  They  try  to  put 
the  whole  together  out  of  their  distorted  and 
defective  ideas  as  they  are  instead  of  compar- 
ing them  often  and  strictly  with  the  outer 
world.  If  the  attention  is  kept  strictly  on 
things  as  they  are,  the  ideas  of  things  will 
classify  themselves  including  the  ideas  of  things 
as  a  whole,  but  there  is  no  escape  from  the 
method.  Every  man  who  starts  to  set  up  his 
fragmentary  ideas  into  a  working  whole  must 
then  compare  often  with  his  model,  the  outer 
whole.  If,  on  the  contrary,  a  man  shuts  him- 
self up  within  the  circle  of  ideas  that  he  has 
already  gotten,  as  he  has  gotten  them,  he 
simply  goes  round  in  a  circle,  stumbling  over 
the  same  contradictions  because  the  ideas  are 
no  more  and  have  still  the  same  deformities. 

The  starting  point  therefore  of  all  progress 
toward  getting  a  clear  conception  of  the  order 
of  the  sciences  is  the  axiom:  The  order  of 
sciences  is  the  order  of  things. 

The  history  of  the  establishment  of  this 
idea  belongs  rather  to  Philosophy  than  to  our 
present  task.  The  School  of  Experience  no 
doubt  paved  the  way;  but  it  was  the  posi- 
tivist  Comte  who  gave  the  greatest  recent 


22 

modern  impetus,  and  Spencer  and  others  of 
his  school  who  have  done  much  to  bring  it 
into  clear-cut  statement  and  something  as 
well  to  confuse  the  issue. 

III.      ORGANIC  UNITY, 

Starting  with  this  the  way  is  cleared  of  its 
greatest  obstacle,  but  the  order  is  by  no  means 
yet  reached.  The  matter  is  in  fact  hardly 
less  puzzling  than  before.  The  point  of  at- 
tention has  been  changed  from  the  mass  of 
ideas  to  the  objective  world  of  things ;  but  we 
have  not  yet  the  answer  even  to  question 
whether  there  is  a  universal  order  of  things 
at  all,  or  if  there  is  of  what  nature  this  order 
may  be. 

So  puzzling  is  the  question  that  there  have 
been  those,  of  course,  who  have  denied  that 
there  was  any  such  thing  as  an  order  to 
things  at  all.  Besides  these  skeptics  there 
have  also  been  many  (and  they  include  a 
large  school  of  idealists)  who  have  held  that 
the  only  order  that  there  is  among  things  is 
an  order  of  ideas;  that  there  is  no  actual 
counterpart  to  that  order  in  external  things 
if  indeed  there  be  any  external  things  at  all. 
They  say  that  there  may  be  an  order  to  the 
universe  within  the  mind  —  the  microcosm, 
but  that  there  is  none  to  the  outside  world. 


23 

In  spite  of  all  the  baffling  contradictions 
however  there  is  such  perfection  of  order  in 
minor  groups  of  things  that  the  more  one 
seeks  the  more  he  finds  growing  in  him  such 
a  sense,  strong  though  elusive,  that  there  is, 
if  it  could  only  be  grasped,  some  kind  of  rela- 
tion for  pretty  nearly  everything  that  is,  that 
he  returns  to  the  common  habit  of  mankind 
of  taking  it  for  granted  that  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  order,  and  this  order  one  such  that  it 
may  be  found  out;  that  the  whole  of  things 
is  in  short  a  Cosmos,  not  a  Chaos.  At  all 
ages  of  the  world,  it  has  in  fact  been  gener- 
ally held  as  true  that  there  is  some  such 
order.  What  the  nature  of  this  order  is  has 
been  variously  expressed,  but  there  is  a  curi- 
ous harmony  between  the  most  ancient  and 
the  most  modern  views  in  calling  it  "living" 
or  "organic." 

This  idea  that  this  whole  is  a  "living  thing." 
familiar  to  us  in  Plato's  Timaeus,  is  contained 
in  the  most  primitive  myth  of  the  "world 
tree"  and  in  the  most  modern  philosophies  as 
well.  Indeed,  if  we  may  believe  Herr  Lotze, 
human  thought  never  does  rest,  and  never 
can  rest  until  it  reaches  a  place  where  "the 
whole  content  of  reality  is  conceived  under 
some  principle  of  organic  unity."  (Ormond, 
Found,  of  Knowl.,  p.  98)  e.  g.,  conceived  of  as 
a  tree  or  animal  rather  than  as  a  molecule, 
a  crystal  or  a  system  of  planets. 


24 

Most  men  therefore  agree  that  there  is  a 
'"unity,"  but  to  find  in  what  this  unity  con- 
sisted, and  especially  what  Plato  means  by 
calling  it  "living,"  and  the  moderns  by  call- 
ing it  "organic,"  has  puzzled  librarians  and 
philosophers  alike.  Endless  attempts  have 
been  made  from  every  point  of  view  to  solve 
the  riddle,  and  although  these  differences  on 
the  whole  are  hardly  so  remarkable  as  the 
resemblances,  yet  the  solutions  are  practic- 
ally as  various  as  the  attempts. 

IV.      THINGS  PAST  AND  THINGS  PRESENT. 

The  greatest  clearing  of  the  lines  came  in 
with  the  development  of  the  idea  or  law  of 
Evolution.  Thanks  to  this  idea  we  have  now 
a  clear  view  of  a  second  great  fact  which  can- 
not be  kept  too  clearly  in  mind  in  our  pres- 
ent task,  to  wit:  the  fact  that  the  whole  of 
things  includes  not  only  things  present,  but 
things  past.  The  ignorance  or  neglect  of  this 
fact  has,  like  the  neglect  of  the  outer  world, 
led  to  the  greatest  possible  confusion  in  the 
past  and  leads  constantly  to  confusion  still, 
when  the  conception  is  at  all  slighted. 

The  common  if  not  exclusive  popular  idea 
of  a  whole  of  things  has  been  a  great  mole- 
cule or  crystal  or  system  of  planetary  sys- 
tems.   However  true  this  may  be  of  things 


25 

that  now  are,  it  does  not  include  things  that 
have  been.  There  is  no  place  in  such  a  sys- 
tem for  plants  and  animals  which  have  no 
living  specimens,  no  place  for  Julius  Caesar, 
and  so  on.  The  mechanical  universe  is  in 
short  not  a  whole  of  things  past  and  present, 
but  only  of  things  present,  whereas  the  real 
universe  had  Julius  Caesar  in  it,  and  what  is 
more  the  historian  and  the  librarian  have  to 
take  concrete  account  of  the  fact,  one  to  lo- 
cate the  actual  point  in  history  when  and 
where  he  was,  the  other  to  represent  that  point 
in  a  system  so  that  a  book  about  him  can  be 
put  in  a  class. 

The  idea  that  things  have  a  history  is  not 
a  new  one.  Applied  to  man,  at  least,  the 
idea  is  familiar  enough,  but  applied  to  every- 
thing in  the  universe,  from  suns  down  to  the 
smallest  molecule,  the  idea  only  finally  came 
to  light  with  the  doctrine  of  evolution.  Now 
it  seems  curious  that  we  did  not  realize  that 
not  only  does  every  atom  in  the  universe  de- 
pend on  its  position  at  a  given  instant  of 
time  on  the  position  of  every  other  atom,  but 
that  it  depends  on  its  own  position  at  every 
previous  instant  of  time,  and  that  these  posi- 
tions were  dependent  in  turn  on  the  positions 
of  all  others  at  that  instant  and  they  on  it, 
and  so  on  every  position  of  every  atom  at 
every  instant  being  dependent  on  every  other. 


26 

Every  animal,  every  plant,  every  molecule 
at  least,  possibly  every  atom  even,  has  thus 
its  history,  and  every  one  has  affected  every 
other  or  has  been  affected  by  every  other  or 
both  throughout  one  organic  whole  from  the 
time  when  the  first  vortex  entered  the  world 
fluid  until  to-day. 

V.      IDEAS   AS   THINGS. 

Still  a  third  thing  which  helps  to  clearness 
in  our  task  and  the  neglect  of  which  has 
caused  confusion,  is  the  fact  that  ideas  are 
real  things,  calling  for  a  place  in  the  order 
of  things.  Every  man's  idea,  whatever  may 
be  the  substance  underlying  it,  whether  mat- 
ter or  force,  has  a  definite  place  in  space  and 
time,  and  is  at  least  accompanied  by  a  definite 
molecular  form.  These  ideas  are  located 
some  in  the  minds  of  living  men,  real  things 
now  existing  each  in  its  own  definite  place. 
Some  were  located  in  the  minds  of  men  now 
dead.  We  have  fossils  of  these  ideas  now  in 
books,  statues  and  pictures,  just  as  the  sci- 
entist has  his  fossil  animals.  The  idea  it- 
self is  in  this  case  a  thing  of  the  past,  but 
it  may  Be  reconstructed  from  books  just  as 
the  long  extinct  animal  from  its  fossil  re- 
mains. The  true  book,  the  true  picture,  the 
true  statue,  is  not  the  one  of  paper  and  ink 


27 

or  canvas  or  marble,  but  the  living  thing  in 
the  mind  of  the  living  artist,  and  we  must 
distingfuish  these  living  ideas  both  from 
things  past  and  things  to  come.  In  every  in- 
dividual man  there  are  these  ideas,  some  rep- 
resenting things  that  have  been,  some  put 
together  out  of  ideas  that  have  been  to  form 
things  that  may  be  —  ideas  of  nature  and  new 
ideas,  which  are  themselves  art  and  created 
also  into  material  outer  things  are  known  as 
Art. 

These  three  things  therefore  are  to  be  kept 
clearly  in  mind,  (i)  that  the  order  of  the 
sciences  is  the  order  of  things,  (2)  that 
things  include  the  past  as  well  as  the  pres- 
ent, (3)  that  things  past  or  present  include 
ideas  as  well  as  nature  or  art. 

VI.      THE  ORDERING  OF  IDEAS. 

With  a  clear  idea  of  these  three  things  we 
are  ready  to  apply  the  fundamental  ideas 
which  have  been  worked  out  for  us  and  have 
been  defined  in  the  introduction,  and  among 
them  particularly  the  ideas  (i)  that  all  our 
science  is  a  search  for  likeness,  (2)  that  the 
order  of  things  is  the  order  of  their  com- 
plexity, (3)  that  things  which  are  growing 
more  complex  are  tending  towards  life,  and 
conversely. 


28 

The  situation  now  before  us  is  this:  we 
stand  face  to  face  with  a  chaos  of  our  ideas, 
one  vast  jumble  of  ideas  of  houses,  stones, 
books,  trees,  other  men's  ideas,  plants  and 
what  not,  piled  up  hap-hazard  and  stored  hap- 
hazard. The  problem  of  every  man  who 
reaches  thinking  age  is  just  this,  to  reduce 
such  a  body  of  ideas  to  order  so  that  he  may 
have  a  connected  view  of  everything  that  is, 
so  far  as  his  ideas  go,  and  incidentally  to  en- 
large the  ideas  themselves  as  far  as  possible 
so  as  to  get  as  nearly  as  possible  a  just  idea 
of  the  whole  of  things.  This  idea  of  ideas, 
this  idea  of  the  whole,  which  includes  all 
other  ideas  organized  into  one  idea  should  be 
an  exact  counterpart  of  that  other  whole 
which  includes  all  things  organized  into  one 
thing  —  in  short,  it  should  be  an  inner  cosmos 
"mirroring"  (as  Haeckel  would  say)  the 
outer  cosmos. 

In  attempting  now  to  make  a  cosmos  out  of 
an  inner  chaos  of  ideas  by  applying  our  prin- 
ciples to  the  conditions,  we  understand  of 
course  thoroughly  that  in  our  task  of  ar- 
ranging in  continuous  series  according  to 
likeness  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  com- 
plex we  are  arranging  not  things  themselves 
but  our  ideas  of  things.  We  understand 
equally  well,  however,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
we  can  make  no  possible  progress  towards 


29 

this  real  arrangement  of  ideas  unless  our 
units,  our  ideas  of  each  thing  are  exactly  like 
the  reality,  and  unless  the  groupings  of 
these  ideas  is  also  like  the  real  grouping  of 
things  in  the  universe.  The  first  step  is 
therefore  to  make  each  unit  idea  exactly  cor- 
respond with  the  reality.  Then  comes  the 
putting  together  of  the  ideas  by  likeness,  or 
their  classification. 


VII.      AN  HYPOTHETICAL  ORDER. 

Looking  now  at  our  heap  of  confused  ideas 
(like  a  basket  of  various  colored  skeins  of 
silk),  there  are  certain  things  which  are  easy 
enough  to  notice.  Men  have  heretofore  long 
had  a  rough  idea  that  things  may  be  divided 
into  "nature  and  the  supernatural,"  and  that 
nature  includes  "the  vegetable,  animal  and 
mineral  kingdoms."  To-day  we  group  nature 
into  lifeless  and  living  —  plant  and  animal, 
but  the  general  idea  of  vegetable,  animal  and 
mineral  is  not  changed  nor  the  fact  that  we 
then  have  a  large  class  of  alleged  phenomena : 
God,  the  angels,  fairies,  miracles,  etc.,  left 
over,  the  science  of  which,  for  convenience  at 
least,  we  may  call  Theology.  Even  the  order 
which  we  call  "evolutionary"  has  long  been 
recognized  to  a  degree  in  a  vague  idea  that 


30 

the  plant  was  "higher"  than  the  mineral,  ani- 
mal than  the  plant,  and  God  than  man. 

But  however  near  the  truth  the  older  sys- 
tems may  have  come  in  their  vague  way,  it  is 
only  with  the  growth  of  the  new  science  that 
infinite  puzzling  contradictions  have  been 
done  away  with  and  clear  lines  definitely  es- 
tablished. Of  course  even  now  we  must  be 
far  from  the  absolute  goal,  but  this  much  at 
least  it  is  safe  to  say,  that,  thanks  to  modern 
science  and  its  laws,  every  one  may  now  get 
if  not  a  perfect  idea  of  the  whole,  at  least  a 
clearer  one  than  was  ever  possible  before  save 
perhaps  to  a  few  seers  like  Plato  and  Moses. 

Briefly  expressed  (and  this  you  may  call 
Hypothesis),  the  clearest  groups  of  things 
are  the  lifeless,  the  living,  the  human  and  the 
superhuman,  and  their  corresponding  sciences 
are  Hylology  (or  the  mathematical-physical 
sciences).  Biology,  Anthropology  and  The- 
ology. This,  too,  is  their  order.  It  is  the  or- 
der of  their  appearance  in  time.  It  is  the 
logical  order,  the  order  of  complexity  and 
the  order  of  power.  Those  even  who  classify 
the  idea  of  a  personal  God  under  morbid  psy- 
chology cannot  refuse  to  consider  a  "cosmol- 
ogy" or  science  of  the  whole,  a  science  more 
complex  than  that  of  any  of  its  parts  and  of 
these  few  many  like  to  call  this  wholeness 
itself    God.       Theist     and     Pantheist     alike 


31 
therefore  will  call  the  science  of  the  super- 
human Theology,  though  the  strict  naturalist 
may  prefer  to  call  this  most  complex  of 
sciences  cosmology.  So  this  tentative  order 
of  Hylology,  Biology,  Anthropology  and  The- 
ology may  well  stand.  It  is  said  that  the 
sciences  themselves  have  grown  up  in  this 
order,  but  we  cannot  go  into  this  now. 

At  first  sight  it  seems  curious  to  speak  of 
the  superhuman  as  a  climax  in  the  order  of 
complexity,  but  regarded  as  the  material  of  a 
science  it  does  at  least  include  everything  pre- 
ceding plus  angels,  God,  and,  if  there  be  such 
things,  fairies,  etc. 

Again,  it  seems  more  curious  still  to  speak 
of  the  superhuman  as  historically  later  in 
time;  but  the  theory  of  Christian  theology 
(as  well  as  of  the  Vedic)  is  that  God  did 
not  "enter  into  time"  or  become  flesh;  that 
is,  did  not  take  organic  part  in  his  universe 
until  after  and  through  man.  Regarding  The- 
ology as  a  science,  therefore,  we  have  the  au- 
thority of  the  same  religious  theory  for  say- 
ing that  there  is  no  science  of  God  save  that 
whose  subject-matter  is  the  Incarnate  God. 

I  therefore  repeat  that  the  order  of  things 
is  lifeless,  living,  human  and  superhuman, 
th<-  order  of  sciences  Hylology j  Biology,  An- 
thropology and  Theology.  This,  of  course,  is 
only  the  barest  outline,  but  it  gives  classes  to 


32 

hold  everything  and  a  reasonable  order.  It 
oflfers  at  least  an  epitome  of  wholeness  such 
as  the  Baconian  system,  for  example,  does  not 
do. 

When  it  comes  to  applying  to  detailed  sub- 
divisions, the  principles  of  "likeness"  and  of 
"growth  in  complexity,"  etc.,  which  have  just 
been  applied  to  the  broad  general  divisions, 
while  we  may  not  get  everything  clear,  we 
shall  clear  up  many  of  the  old  puzzles  which 
have  most  troubled  the  classifiers  (and  libra- 
rians perhaps  most  of  all  for  their  task  of 
classification,  dealing,  as  it  does,  with  con- 
crete things  is  more  imperative  than  the  clas- 
sification of  ideas) .  Thus,  e.  g.,  History,  Art, 
Literature  and  Technology,  as  well  as  The- 
ology, emerge  from  their  Mohamet-coffin  posi- 
tion as  not-sciences  into  solid  earth  as  sci- 
ences, and  the  vexatious  subjective  distinction 
of  "abstract  and  concrete"  science  "pure  and 
applied"  vanish. 

This  matter  is  pretty  abstract  to  be  dis- 
cussed with  any  clearness,  especially  in  non- 
technical terms,  within  the  limits  of  a  single 
lecture,  yet  we  will  try  to  get  some  notion  of 
it  —  some  "tail-feathers"  of  the  idea,  as  a  cer- 
tain distinguished  professor  of  Theology 
might  say. 


33 


VIII.      COSMIC    HISTORY. 


It  will  simplify  the  matter  if  we  begin  by 
trying  to  trace  the  objective  history  of  the 
whole  of  things  in  space  and  time  from  the 
beginning  until  to-day  from  the  simplest  to 
tht  most  complex,  as  well  as  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge  will  allow.  If  we  can  thus 
get  a  general  view  of  this  connected  histori- 
cal whole  of  which  the  material  universe  of 
to-day  is  the  front  rank  of  the  advancing 
march  of  an  army  of  atoms  through  time,  the 
front  wave  of  a  stream  reaching  back  to  its 
scurce,  we  can  then  divide  and  name  the  sec- 
tions at  pleasure. 

Suppose  in  the  beginning  then  only  little 
things  in  a  world  fluid,  all  alike,  or  a  single 
little  thing  only.  It  is  immaterial  to  us 
whether  these  little  things  are  vortex  rings 
or  hard  particles,  so  that  they  be  exactly  or 
substantially  alike,  so  alike  at  least  that  no 
distinction  can  be  made  in  them  by  the  hu- 
man mind.  This  was  once  the  conception 
that  we  had  of  atoms.  Now  we  suppose  that 
atoms  may  be  redivided  into  ions.  Suppose 
this  to  be  true,  and  we  have  then  to  begin 
with,  first,  a  world  fluid,  second,  loose  ions  in 
a  world  fluid  uniting  here  and  there  in  groups 
of   greater   or   less   number,   mnrrnjkj  Inrai  -  *-  ^  _ 

f    Hi)\  26  1901 


34 

densely,  to  form  atoms  of  various  degrees  of 
complexity. 

The  point  about  each  atom  now  is  that  it 
is  itself  a  "discrete"  thing,  which  "moves  as 
a  whole, .  so  that  its  parts,  if  it  has  any,  do 
not  part  company"  under  ordinary  conditions. 
I;  has  a  separate  individual  being  which  is  not 
simple  but  a  complex  of  ions.  This  complex 
is,  however,  so  firm  that  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions of  substance  its  ions  do  not  part  com- 
pany, though  it  is  conceivable  that  there 
might  be  conditions  of  heat,  electricity  and 
light  under  which  they  would  do  so.  The 
world  fluid  filled  with  these  ions  in  various 
degrees  of  density  short  of  the  atomic  stage 
may  be  supposed  to  be  what  we  call  ether 
(and  all  this  applies  quite  as  well  to  what  is 
known  as  the  condensation  theory  as  it  does 
to  the  atomic),  unless  indeed  we  are  to  sup- 
pose that  in  the  ether  the  ion  stage  has  been 
already  passed  and  the  atomic  begun.  The 
nature  both  of  ion  and  of  atom  is  somewhat 
recondite  but  this  much  at  least  seems  clear 
that  the  atom  is  no  longer  to  be  looked  on 
as  simple  and  indivisible  but  as  a  complex  of 
ions. 

The  next  stage  of  world  history  or  evolu- 
tion is  when  these  ion-complexes,  or  atoms, 
themselves  unite  with  one  another  in  various 
degrees  of  complexity  to  form  again  a  series 


35 

of  things  each  of  which  "moves  about  as  a 
whole"  and  is  not  broken  under  any  ordinary 
conditions.  These  independent  groups  are 
called  molecules.  Here  we  begin  to  walk  on 
firmer  ground.  We  know  that  we  have  some 
seventy  different  kinds  of  atoms.  These 
atoms  are  united,  some  with  like  atoms  to 
form  the  elements,  some  with  unlike  atoms 
to  form  still  more  complex  molecules  all  the 
way  up  to  the  very  high  degree  of  complexity 
of  the  carbon  compounds  and  their  topmost 
branch  protoplasm.  It  is  not  said  that  these 
cannot  be  resolved  into  their  elements  by  suf- 
ficient heat  or  made  more  solid  by  cold 
(probably  they  can),  but  that  under  ordinary 
conditions  they  keep  their  thing-ness,  their 
separate  individual  identity.  It  is  to  be  re- 
membered, too,  all  the  time  that  from  the  be- 
ginning we  are  dealing  with  things  which 
however  much  alike  they  may  be,  are  at  least 
each  separate  in  space,  and  that  this  is  true 
even  if  their  boundaries  are  the  same ;  for  in 
this  case  they  may  simply  interpermeate  as 
whole  molecules  of  sugar  in  water,  or  broken 
up  into  parts  as  in  the  case  of  salt  in  water. 

Now  all  the  time  that  the  nearer  things  are 
forming  more  and  more  complex  groups  of 
atoms  or  molecules  the  process  of  grouping 
is  going  on,  not  in  one  part  only,  but  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  fluid,  groups  of  atoms 


36 

formed  into  molecules  are  again  formed  into 
new  groups  or  masses,  and  these  wholes  are 
themselves  separate  individuals  in  space,  yet 
not  unrelated  to  all  other  masses,  and  in 
some  cases,  at  least,  in  the  universe,  united 
into  groups  of  masses  themselves  separate  in- 
dividual things,  to  wit,  planetary  systems. 

Some  of  these  masses  are,  we  understand, 
wholly  of  one  kind  of  atom,  say  hydrogen 
vapors.  Others,  like  the  sun,  contain  nearly 
every  element  or  every  kind  of  group  of  like 
atoms.  Others,  like  the  earth,  contain  both 
elementary  and  complex  molecules,  although 
so  far  as  human  knowledge  goes,  this  earth 
alone  contains  complex  molecules.  What- 
ever the  fact  may  be,  so  far  as  our  knowledge 
of  the  fact  is  concerned,  i.  e.,  so  far  as  science 
is  concerned,  the  earth  is  the  only  place  in 
the  universe  where  complex  molecules  are 
gathered.  It  is  therefore,  so  far  as  the  classi- 
fication of  science  is  concerned,  the  most 
complex  of  all  molecular  aggregates  in  the 
universe. 

Glancing  back  over  matters,  we  have,  up 
to  this  point,  ions,  groups  of  ions  =  atoms; 
groups  of  atoms  =  molecules;  groups  of  mole- 
cule9=planetary  systems,  and  each  of  these 
has  left  behind  it  in  each  case  many  individ- 
uals not  organized  into  a  system. 

This   same  process   now   continues  among 


37 

complex  molecules,  certain  members  of  one 
kind  of  which  alone,  i.  e.,  protoplasm,  become 
organized  themselves  into  independent  groups 
which  we  call  cells.  These  cells  are  again  in 
turn  of  various  degrees  of  complexity,  veg- 
etable, animal,  etc.,  up  to  the  human.  In  the 
human  cells  alone  is  the  mass  of  the  most 
complex  cells,  the  idea-cells ( ?)  organized 
again  into  a  new  independent  molecular  unity, 
a  logical  idea  of  ideas,  a  human  personality. 

Among  these  new  molecules  again,  to  wit, 
these  human  personalities  or  men,  there  is 
again  a  tendency  towards  union  into  individ- 
ual nucleated  groups  called  societies,  separate 
things  in  space.  These  include  voluntary  so- 
cieties, families,  nations,  churches,  etc.,  per- 
haps the  best  example  being  so  far  as  ap- 
pearance is  concerned  and  so  far  as  relates 
to  things  that  now  are,  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

According  to  the  theory  known  as  Chris- 
tianity, the  true  organism  of  human  person- 
alities is  a  certain  definite  if  unlimited  num- 
ber of  persons  organized  into  a  group  whose 
nucleus  is  the  historic  Christ.  These  form 
a  new  independent  organism  which  "moves 
about  by  itself"  and  leaves  behind  many  per- 
sons not  organized  into  it.  Its  own  individual 
particles  can  only  be  disintegrated  when  they 
have  broken  from  the  organism  of  this  new 


38 

molecule  or  cell.  This  new  organism  is  known 
as  the  (Invisible)  Church,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  a  real  existence  dating  from  a  given 
point  in  space  and  time  (that  is  the  historic 
Christ),  at  which  time,  however,  the  human 
cells  previously  formed  were  taken  into  the 
organism.  This  organism  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  thing  now  existing  as  a  real  entity. 
Whether  this  be  so  or  not,  the  visible  church 
at  least  is  such  a  real  society,  and  is  one  of 
the  things  which  must  be  taken  into  account, 
analyzed  and  classified  under  any  theory  of 
science.  Whether  the  matter  falls  under  the 
science  of  Theology  or  that  of  Anthropology 
may  be  hard  to  decide,  but  then  all  border 
lines  in  classification  are  hard  to  distinguish. 
There  is  no  real  cleavage. 

Whether  again  this  is  the  end  or  not ; 
whether  in  the  future  there  is  to  be  any 
group  of  such  groups  distributed  anywhere  in 
space  and  forming  a  society  of  societies 
throughout  the  universe  is  only  a  speculation, 
and  sounds  somewhat  fantastic,  even  as  spec- 
ulation, and  yet  it  seems  to  be  the  logical  re- 
sult of  the  evolutionary  process  if  it  is  to 
continue. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  all  this  devel- 
opment of  complexity  has  been  a  develop- 
ment in  time  as  well  as  development  in 
space  and  a   development  in  complexity  of 


39 

nature.  Each  more  complex  has  followed  the 
less  complex  in  its  appearance  in  time.  We 
have  now  arrived  at  the  "now."  We  have  a 
mass  of  more  or  less  highly  organized  things, 
gfroups,  atoms,  molecules,  planetary  systems, 
cells,  men,  societies  of  men.  They  are  the 
things  with  which  we  deal  in  science,  and 
this  order  of  their  history  is  the  general  order 
of  their  sciences. 

IX.     THE  ORDER  OF  COMPLEXITY. 

In  order  now  to  get  further  divisions  than 
those  mentioned  at  first  and  to  give  them 
names  we  trace  the  history  backward  and 
forward  and  mark  the  lines  of  its  branches 
from  point  to  point. 

The  simplest  thing  that  we  can  think  of  is 
a  single  ion  in  a  world  fluid  at  a  single  instant 
of  time,  but  even  with  this  the  science  of 
Mathematics  has  begfun,  for  simple  discrete- 
ness makes  two  things,  and  Arithmetic,  the 
science  of  number,  has  had  its  birth.  There 
may  be  any  number  more  ions  in  the  world 
fluid  at  a  single  instant  of  time,  and  Mathe- 
matics be  advanced  to  a  most  complex  stage, 
but  Physics  does  not  come  in  until  the  idea  of 
time  is  added.  Given,  however,  one  ion  at 
two  successive  instants  of  time  and  we  have 
the  idea  of  motion  in  the  passing  of  this  ion 


40 

from  one  point  in  the  world  fluid  to  another 
and  with  the  idea  of  motion  the  science  of 
Physics  is  born.  Chemistry  does  not  come  in 
until  things  have  reached  the  molecule  stage. 
It  does  however  apply  even  to  the  simplest 
one  atom  molecule  and  to  molecules  of  like 
atoms,  as  well  as  to  compound  molecules  of 
the  utmost  degree  of  complexity.  It  has 
its  beginning  thus  in  the  first  molecules, 
whereas  Astronomy  only  takes  its  beginning 
with  the  union  of  two  molecules  in  a  mass. 
Biology  again  does  not  exist  even  in  the  most 
complex  carbon  molecule,  but  only  comes  in 
when  molecules  are  organized  into  a  nucleated 
cell,  although  it  belongs  to  the  very  simplest 
single  cell  as  truly  as  to  the  most  complex  ani- 
mal. Anthropology  again,  as  distinguished 
from  Zoology,  only  comes  in  with  the  organ- 
ization of  ideas,  but  it  does  exist  in  the  most 
rudimentary  organism  of  classified  ideas.  It 
is  open  to  some  question  whether  a  man  does 
organize  ideas  except  as  a  consequence  of  so- 
cial activity,  and  whether  the  Anthropology 
itself  is  not  Sociology,  and  indeed  Comte  does 
put  Sociology  at  this  stage  instead  of  Anthro- 
pology. Nevertheless  every  individual  man  does 
have  a  classified  body  of  ideas,  such  as  no  ani- 
mal has,  and  is  what  may  be  called  an  organic 
consciousness  in  a  sense  in  which  the  animal 
is  not.     It  therefore  seems  better  to  mark  off 


41 

this  stage,  as  Anthropology  including  (i)  the 
science  of  organized  ideas  in  their  exact  cor- 
respondence with  outward  things,  or  knowl- 
edge (epistemology),  and  (2)  Aesthetics,  the 
science  of  the  construction  of  new  ideas,  or 
creation,  (3)  Ethics,  the  science  of  perfection 
both  in  inward  correspondence  with  reality 
and  in  the  construction  of  new  ideas,  whether 
within  or  without,  and  if  without  whether  in 
reality  or  in  symbol.  If  psychology  is  ad- 
mitted here  and  not  relegated  to  biology  it  is 
practically  identical  with  anthropology,  or 
may  be  regarded  as  the  physiology,  as  epis- 
temology and  aesthetics  are  the  morphology 
of  human  personality. 

It  is  by  the  further  analysis  of  man  as  a 
creator  that  we  arrive  best  at  the  fourth  di- 
vision of  Anthropology  or  Sociology. 

The  science  of  aesthetics  includes  as  its  sub- 
ject-matter new  ideas  in  various  stages  of  em- 
bodiment. First  they  are  formed  in  a  man's 
own  molecular  brainstuff,  afterwards  in  out- 
ward reality.  With  human  creations  in  out- 
ward reality  the  series  begins  over  again,  life- 
kss,  living,  human  (superhuman?).  A  man's 
art  ideas  include  (1)  ideas  embodied  in  life- 
less things,  tools,  houses,  clothing,  etc., 
the  mechanical  arts  generally,  (2)  ideas 
embodied  in  living  things,  to  wit,  agricul- 
ture, animal-culture,  fishing,  hunting,  breed- 


42 

itig,  etc.,  (3)  ideas  embodied  in  the  minds 
of  other  men.  The  instruments  to  this 
final  embodiment  are  what  we  call  the  fine 
arts  —  music,  gesture,  painting,  sculpture, 
words,  following  again  a  series  from  simplest 
to  most  complex,  the  crown  and  climax  being 
the  embodiment  in  another  personality  of 
one's  own  body  of  ideas,  the  creation  there- 
fore in  another  of  one's  own  organized  ideas 
as  a  whole,  the  binding  idea  being  one's  own 
idea  of  the  whole.  If  this  could  be  done  per- 
fectly in  its  entirety  a  man's  own  whole  per- 
sonality would  be  embodied  in  another,  yet 
notice  that  the  two  persons  though  exactly 
alike  would  yet  be  two  different  (if  perhaps 
somewhat  monotonous)  persons. 

This  art  of  embodying  one's  own  ideas  in 
another  we  call  education. 

Now  by  this  production  of  likeness  of  idea 
in  one  another,  through  art,  and  especially 
that  form  of  art  which  we  call  language,  the 
possibility  of  Sociology  comes  in,  and  so  far 
as  ideas  have  been  made  alike  there  society 
exists.  Where  this  likeness  is  society  is,  and 
unity  in  such  a  society  is  specially  promoted 
by  having  some  central  person  or  central  book 
or  some  central  idea  such  as  Liberty  to  or- 
ganize ideas  about  —  to  furnish  a  common 
ground  of  likeness  —  a  likeness  which  runs 
through  everything. 


43 

Theology  only  comes  in  in  this  series  when 
the  organization  of  ideas  in  the  man  has  a 
superhuman  center.  We  have  now  gotten  be- 
yond our  limit,  but  may  suggest  that  Theol- 
ogy includes  (i)  Cosmology,  or  th^e  idea  of 
things  below  the  human  personality  as  being 
centered  in  a  divine  person.  (2)  Christ ology 
or  humanity  in  its  individual  nature  centered 
in  a  person.  (3)  Ecclesiology  or  the  society 
oi  personalities  centered  in  a  divine  person 
united  by  "likeness"  to  him,  and  (4)  Theology 
or  the  science  of  all  things  living,  lifeless,  hu- 
man and  superhuman  centered  in  a  person. 
The  applications  of  our  various  laws  to  cur- 
rent conceptions  in  these  matters  is  obvious. 

X.      THE  ORDER  STATED. 

We  have  therefore  (i)  Mathematics,  the 
science  of  number  and  of  relative  position  in 
space  at  a  single  instant  of  time ;  (2)  Physics, 
the  science  of  motion  or  change  of  position, 
up  to  and  including  the  organization  of  like 
ions  into  like  and  unlike  atoms;  (3)  Chem- 
istry, the  science  of  organized  atoms  or  mole- 
cules; (4)  Astronomy,  the  science  of  organ- 
ized masses;  (5)  Biology,  the  science  of  life 
or  of  the  cell ;  (6)  Anthropology,  the  science 
of  the  human,  including  (6a)  epistemology, 
.(6b)  aesthetics,  (6c)  ethics ;  (7)  Sociology,  the 


44 

science  of  human  groups;  (8)  Theology,  the 
science  of  the  superhuman  or  of  all  things, 
lifeless  and  living,  organized  in  a  single  cen- 
ter;   (a)    Cosmology,    (b)    Christology,    (c) 
Ecclesiology,  (d)  Theology  proper. 
Following  is  the  graphic  statement: 
Hylology : 
Mathematics. 
Physics. 
Chemistry. 
Astronomy, 
Geology. 
Biology : 
Botany. 
Zoology. 
Physical  anthropology  (?). 
Anthropology : 
Psychology  (Human). 
Epistemology. 
Aesthetics. 
Useful  arts. 
Fine  arts. 

Language  and  literature. 
Ethics  (?). 
Sociology  (incl.  "History"). 
Theology : 
Cosmology. 
Christology. 
Ecclesiology. 
Theology  proper. 


45 

This,  of  course,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as 
final  in  any  sense,  but  as  an  hypothesis  on 
which  we  may  climb  to  a  better.  It  certainly 
includes  some  elements  of  clearness  not  pos- 
sible until  recent  years. 


LECTURE   II, 
THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  BOOKS. 

I.     BOOK  CLASSIFICATION  AN  AST. 

The  aim  of  this  paper  has  been  described 
as  practical.  By  this  is  meant  that  it  aims 
chiefly  to  suggest  certain  adjustments  or 
adaptations  of  the  strictly  logical  order  which 
are  made  necessary  in  the  matter  of  book 
classification  by  the  fact  that  we  are  dealing 
not  with  ideas  but  with  concrete  things. 

This  need  of  adjusting  theoretical  classifi- 
cation to  practical  conditions  is  not  peculiar 
to  the  classification  of  books,  but  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  treatment  of  all  complex  con- 
crete things.  *  It  is  sometimes  said  that  the 
classification  of  books  differs  radically  from 
classification  as  used  in  science  in  that  many 
books  are  made  up  in  such  way  as  to  cover 
a  great  variety  of  subjects,  e.  g.,  periodicals, 
books  of  essays,  etc.  It  is  true  that  books  are 
complex,  but  for  that  matter  so  are  things 
in  the  universe ;  the  crust  of  the  earth,  for  ex- 
ample, is  made  up  not  merely  of  seventy  dif- 
ferent elements,  but  of  seventy  times  seventy 
combinations   of   these   elements   massed   in 


47 

every  imaginable  sort  of  form.  A  book  could 
hardly  be  more  complex  as  to  subject  than 
a  lump  of  rock  may  be  as  to  elements.  The 
classification  of  books  is  like  classification  of 
specimens  in  a  museum.  Each  is  an  art. 
Neither  is  theoretically  exact.  If  we  at- 
tempt to  rearrange  things  strictly  according 
to  likeness  with  scientific  exactness,  we  have 
to  vaporize  them  so  that  the  elements  may 
be  brought  together.  This  is  precisely  what 
the  chemist  does,  and  what  he  does  with 
molecules  we  can  do  pretty  well  with  ideas 
so  long  as  they  remain  in  that  more  or  less 
volatile  condition  where  we  call  them 
"thoughts."  We  cannot,  however,  do  this  so 
well  where  the  ideas  have  been  crystallized 
into  books.  Even  among  ideas  vaporizing 
them  so  as  to  re-crystallize  according  to 
their  real  likeness  is  a  painful  task  and  few 
enough  men  have  mental  heat  or  enthusiasm 
sufficient  to  do  it  very  often  or  very  perfectly. 
They  prefer  to  let  their  ideas  stay  in  the  orig- 
inal mixed  masses  in  which  they  first  cooled, 
and  in  the  order  in  which  they  then  happened 
to  be.  This  is  what  is  generally  though  false- 
ly called  conservatism  when  applied  to 
thoughts.  It  is  in  reality  intellectual  petri- 
fication. Books  on  the  other  hand  are  real 
petrifications,  or  rather  planets  in  an  ad; 
vanced  stage  of  evolution,  where  the  mass 


48 

of  ideas  has  passed  out  of  the  fluid  into  a 
solid  unchanging  state.  They  do  not  there- 
fore, however,  differ  "radically"  from  other 
complex  masses  in  the  matter  of  their  clas- 
sification. All  masses  alike,  whether  books  or 
stones,  are  conditioned  in  the  attempt  to  ar- 
range them  in  space  according  to  their  like- 
ness by  the  fact  of  their  complexity  and  need 
to  be  adjusted  accordingly.  But  this  does 
not,  however,  make  the  theoretical  order  of 
less  value;  on  the  contrary,  this  ideal  order 
is  in  the  end  the  only  one  which  can  serve  as 
a  real  basis  without  ending  in  a  chaos  of  self 
contradictions.  The  librarian  can  no  more 
afford  to  ignore  the  question  of  the  real  sci- 
entific order  in  arranging  his  books  than 
the  professor  of  mineralogy  in  arranging  his 
specimens.  It  is  identically  the  same  thing. 
I  wish  I  could  say  that  the  average  librarian 
had  the  same  scientific  attitude  towards  his 
problem  that  the  average  professor  of  min- 
eralogy does  towards  his.  The  fact  is  that 
the  practical  modifications  which  complex  con- 
crete things  call  for  in  their  actual  classifica- 
tion in  space  are  similar  for  all  masses.  The 
classification  of  books  is,  however,  in  some  re- 
spects the  best  example  of  this  —  so  much  so, 
in  fact,  that  if  there  were  a  philosopher  here 
present  I  would  commend  to  him  the  study 
of  book  classification  as  being  as  valuable  to 


49 

him  as  I  have  urged  that  theoretical  clas- 
sification is  important  to  you. 

The  main  fact  about  the  classification  of 
books  is  in  brief  the  fact  that  it  is  an  art 
not  science.  The  classification  or  order  of 
things  is  nature  and  is  not  a  human  creation. 
The  classification  or  c«-der  of  ideas  follows 
the  order  of  this  classification  of  things  and 
is  science.  The  classification  of  books,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  an  art  —  a  human  creation  for 
a  human  end.  The  order  of  sciences  is  its 
backbone,  but  in  the  adjustment  of  books  in 
this  order  there  are  many  practicacl  accommo- 
dations to  be  made,  determined  by  not  merely 
complexity  of  material  but  by  the  end  in 
view. 

This  classification  of  books  deals,  as  we 
have  said,  with  concrete  objects,  not  with 
ideas;  its  end,  too,  is  not  a  scientific  law,  but 
a  rule;  not  the  discovery  of  how  things  are 
done,  but  the  formulation  of  a  decree  as  to 
how  they  shall  be  done.  The  end'  of  ends  in 
scientific  study  is,  properly,  a  scientific  law 
suited  to  produce  in  a  man  the  exact  knowl- 
edge of  what  is,  the  end  of  ends  in  the  rules 
of  art  is  to  produce  in  concrete  substance 
something  which  never  yet  has  been,  suited 
to  a  certain  purpose.  If  you  say  that  in  this 
statement  the  analogy  with  other  complex 
things  falls  through,  I  say  that  it  is  of  no 


50 

great  importance  if  it  does  come  to  an  end  at 
this  point,  and  yet  the  fact  is  that  the  min- 
eralogist who  arranges  his  specimens  with 
strict  reference  to  illustrating  the  real  order 
of  things  does  face  nearly  the  same  artistic 
problem.  Suppose,  e.  g.,  a  vein  of  gold  em- 
bedded in  quartz.  In  a  metallurgical  collec- 
tion it  could  be  arranged  according  to  its 
metal,  in  a  collection  illustrating,  e.  g.,  the 
strength  of  materials,  it  might  be  arranged  as 
quartz.  This  is  the  chief  book  classification 
problem  in  a  nutshell  —  the  arranging  of  com- 
plex material  with  a  view  to  its  practical  end. 
The  main  factor  is  the  end  sought.  The  ad- 
justment of  material  depends  on  this  end. 

In  describing  this  paper  as  practical,  there- 
fore, it  is  intended  to  imply  not  a  systematic 
technical  treatise,  but  only  the  treatment  of 
the  practical  modifications  of  the  theoretical 
order  called  for  by  the  fact  that  we  are  here 
treating  complex  material  with  reference  to 
a  practical  end.  No  attempt  will  be  made 
here  to  give  a  survey  of  the  history  of  clas- 
sification, or  a  history  of  that  discussion  of  its 
individual  points  and  problems  of  which  our 
American  library  history  is  full,  nor  yet  in 
any  sense  will  the  attempt  be  made  to  give 
detailed  descrciption  of  technique.  This  is 
the  ordinary  commonplace  of  library  school 
routine.    You  are  doubtless  referred  in  your 


51 

classes  to  Kephart's  bibliography  in  the 
World's  Fair  papers,  to  the  introductions  of 
the  Dewey  and  Cutter  systems  as  well  as  to 
the  pages  of  the  library  periodicals,  and  in  par- 
ticular to  the  index  to  the  Library  journal, 
not  to  mention  the  treatises  of  Maire  and 
Graesel  and  the  like.  When  these  papers  are 
printed  they  will  have  something  of  the  na- 
ture of  a  historical  sketch  with  outlines  of 
various  systems  both  theoretical  and  practi- 
cal; but  for  the  brief  treatment  of  this  lec- 
ture the  historical  and  technical  must  be 
largely  disclaimed.  Even  what  I  have  called 
the  practical  aim  of  this  paper  is  therefore  in 
a  way  theoretical,  but  it  is  the  theory  of  an 
art,  not  the  theory  of  a  science.  In  short, 
it  is  method,  and,  as  has  been  said,  its  aim 
is  to  distinguish  the  difference  between  book 
classification  and  theoretical  classification. 

II.      BOOK    CLASSIFICATION    AND    CARD   CLASSIFI- 
CATION. 

The  first  step  in  this  process  of  differentia- 
tion is  evidently  to  explain  what  it  is  here 
intended  to  include  under  book  classification. 
In  speaking  of  the  classification  of  books  here 
then,  it  will  be  understood  that  both  the  clas- 
sification of  the  material  books  on  the  shelves 
and  the  analytical  classification  of  the  con- 


52 

tents  of  these  books  in  catalogs  and  bibliogra- 
phies will  be  included.  Although  there  are 
some  differences  between  the  two  kinds  which 
will,  from  point  to  point,  be  noted,  the  prin- 
ciples and  practical  difficulties  of  these  two 
forms  of  book  classification  are  substantially 
the  same.  The  chief  difference  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  card  classification  can  be  carried 
nearer  to  scientific  completeness  than  that  of 
books  on  the  shelves,  for  it  is  not  conditioned 
by  the  paper  and  binding,  and  the  analysis 
can  therefore  be  carried  further.  The  libra- 
rian who  analyzes  his  books  in  this  way  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  the  chemist  who  vaporizes 
his  material  and  yet  he  never  reaches  his 
point.  He  is  rather  like  a  mineralogist  who  is 
so  situated  that  he  cannot  apply  the  blow  pipe 
and  must  get  as  pure  a  lump  of  ore  as  may 
be  by  breaking.  It  is  only  the  author  who 
uses  the  contents  of  books  to  make  new  books, 
breaking  up  the  very  ideas  in  the  alembic  of 
his  own  mind,  who  is  the  scientist  of  books. 
He  alone  makes  the  book-atoms  free  to  take 
their  affinities.  Nevertheless  as  has  been  said, 
the  difference  between  shelf-classification 
and  analytical  card-classification  is  considera- 
ble in  this  respect  and  is  like  the  difference 
between  big  rough  lumps  of  mixed  ores  and 
smaller  purer  specimens  which  can  be  ar- 
ranged with  greater  exactness. 


S3 

But  whatever  differences  there  may  be  be- 
tween these  kinds  they  are  alike  as  to  (l) 
the  object  that  they  have  in  view  and  (2) 
the  different  ways  in  which  the  classification 
can  be  carried  out. 

in.     THE  OBJECTS  AND  IMPORTANCE  OF  BOOK 
CLASSIFICATION. 

If  we  come  down  to  the  real  fact  why  we 
put  books  or  cards  together  according  to  sub- 
jects in  a  library,  we  find  that  it  is  to  get  to- 
gether those  books  or  cards  which  will  be 
most  used  together.  The  object  is  a  practical 
one  just  as  the  object  of  the  library  itself  is  a 
practical  one.  Libraries  are  not  gotten  to- 
gether as  a  museum  to  exhibit  what  we  have 
called  the  fossils  of  knowledge.  It  is  a  ma- 
chine got  together  to  instill  that  knowledge 
into  men's  minds.  The  books  are  collected 
for  use.  They  are  administered  for  use. 
They  are  arranged  for  use;  and  it  is  use 
which  is  the  motive  of  classification. 

The  putting  of  the  most  used  books  to- 
gether saves  in  the  first  place  actual  labor 
on  the  part  of  users  and  librarian  in  assem- 
bling any  given  mass  of  material  for  use.  No 
catalog  can  take  its  place.  It  is  sometimes 
said  that  the  bibliography  or  catalog  serves, 
as  well  or  better,  but  suppose  the  user  or 


54 

librarian  does  get  bibliographical  references 
to  all  the  things  that  he  wants  in  a  classified 
catalog.  The  work  then  has  only  begun. 
Somebody  must  either  go  from  one  point  to 
another  and  examine  the  diflFerent  books 
where  they  stand  on  the  shelves,  or  else  some 
one  must  go  to  each  point  and  bring  to- 
gether in  a  class  temporarily  the  things  want- 
ed. In  an  unclassified  library  the  books  are 
thus  classified  over  again  every  time  a  man 
wants  to  use  them.  It  is  a  labor  saving  de- 
vice to  assemble  them  in  classes  once  for  all 
instead.  It  is  sometimes  objected  to  this  that 
no  classification  actually  does  get  all  the  ma- 
terial that  a  man  wants  together,  and  that  a 
man  wants  to  use  it  from  various  points  of  view 
at  different  times.  This  is  entirely  true,  but 
what  of  it?  It  is  aside  from  the  point.  One 
might  just  as  well  refuse  to  pick  up  pound 
nuggets  in  gold  mining,  if  he  should  have  the 
good  luck  to  find  them,  on  the  ground  that 
there  were  still  gold  dust  to  be  gotten  by 
panning.  Any  roughed  out  group  of  books  is 
a  positive  and  great  gain  to  economy  in  bib- 
liographical search  and  promotes  economy  in 
the  actual  use  by  bringing  the  books  together 
in  space  and  thus  saving  innumerable  steps 
on  the  part  of  the  man  who  goes  to  the 
shelves  to  consult  them.  The  actual  advan- 
tage  to   science    which   comes    from   havitig 


55 

books  closely  classified,  through  this  economy 
of  labor  in  the  work  of  research  must  be, 
even  in  our  present  hardly  fully  developed 
usage,  hundreds  of  years  annually  to  the 
highest  of  all  skilled  labor  —  that  of  the 
highly  trained  expert  scholar.  When  you 
put  it  down  as  a  cold  concrete  fact  that  good 
classification  in  any  group  may  save  in  a  few 
years  the  research-work  of  a  man  for  a  cen- 
tury it  begins  to  be  a  very  practical  matter. 
The  saving  of  actual  dollars  in  administration 
{for  a  given  efficiency)  must  figure  out  as 
equally  great.  I  believe  the  statement  will 
stand  the  most  careful  examination,  that 
in  a  large  scholarly  library,  doubling  the  en- 
tire delivery  and  reference  force  would  not 
give  the  efficiency  to  an  unclassified  library 
of  even  a  barely  tolerable  classification.  A 
prime  advantage  of  having  most  used  books 
in  classes  together,  therefore,  is  the  fact  that 
the  rough  bulk  of  material  so  gathered  to- 
gether saves  a  vast  amount  of  bibliographi- 
cal work  and  a  vast  amount  of  work  in  actual 
gathering  together  and  use  of  material. 

A  second  and  great  advantage  of  having 
the  most  uted  books  together  in  the  classes 
in  which  they  are  used  together,  is  that  they 
furnish  in  this  way  an  incentive  to  the  user 
to  get  a  full  view  of  his  material.  This  is  a 
matter  of  the  utmost  value.    Men  are  natur- 


56 
ally  lazy.  They  are  too  little  inclined  any- 
way to  exhaust  material,  and  when  you  add 
to  this  also  the  fact  that  the  scientific  man  is 
generally  also  extremely  ignorant  of  books, 
you  open  a  vast  field  of  profit  in  a  method  of 
setting  out  before  a  man  so  that  he  can  get  at 
it  with  the  least  trouble  a  large  amount  of 
his  material.  In  looking  over  much  material, 
too,  he  is  pretty  sure  also  to  be  tempted  by 
references  to  look  up  other  material  (such 
An  articles  in  proceedings  of  academies)  not 
grouped  in  the  class  —  at  least  he  is  more  likely 
to  than  if  his  only  resource  was  chasing  up 
bibliographical  references  apart  from  the 
books.  Men  not  librarians  are  almost  in- 
variably surprised  to  find  how  much  material 
has  been  written  on  their  subject.  It  very 
often  happens  that  they  find  that  work  on 
which  they  have  been  wasting  much  time  has 
already  been  done  by  some  one  else,  and  it  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  that  they  should 
discover  this  at  the  earliest  date  in  order 
that  they  may  turn  their  attention  as  soon  as 
possible  to  more  profitable  channels.  This 
end  is  greatly  promoted  by  the  simple  fact 
of  having  the  material  grouped  together  so 
that  men  can  glance  over  it  and  get  their  eye 
on  what  has  really  been  done.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  a  guide  especially  to  men  in  looking 
over  the  field  to  see  beforehand  what  fields 


57 
are  still  comparatively  unworked,  this  classi- 
fication of  books  becomes  of  still  greater  im- 
portance to  the  progress  of  knowledge. 

And  what  is  true  of  trained  scientific  re- 
search I  take  is  still  more  true  of  popular 
work  —  on  the  one  hand,  there  is  a  gfreat 
economy  to  the  librarian  who  has  to  help  in 
school  work,  essay  work,  club  work,  etc.,  in 
his  task  of  hunting  up  references,  and  on  the 
other  hand,  where  there  is  access  to  shelves 
especially,  there  is  the  greatest  educational 
advantage  in  the  actual  incentive  to  the  reader 
to  read  or  at  least,  what  is  of  almost  greater 
importance,  browse  through  books  in  order 
to  pick  out  certain  things.  The  "average 
reader"  will  hardly  study  even  a  classed  cat- 
alog, and  is  utterly  at  sea  with  an  alphabeti- 
cal list  or  an  unclassified  library.  If,  how- 
ever, he  can  look  over  the  shelves  in  a  classi- 
fied library  he  is  surprised  to  find  how  much 
there  is  that  is  interesting,  he  learns  to  get 
facts  that  he  wants  more  readily,  and  in  the 
end  saves  much  time  for  himself  and  for  the 
librarian,  wliile  at  the  same  time  he  gets  far 
better  cultivation  in  the  same  time  than  he 
could  possibly  have  thought  of  getting  in  an 
unclassified  library. 

And  besides  this  economy  of  time  and 
labor  there  is  a  third  advantage  in  classifica- 
tion, by  no  means  to  be  despised,  in  the  fact 


58 

of  the  psychological  or  mnemonic  training  of 
those  who,  through  seeing  books  arranged  in 
certain  classes,  get  in  the  habit  of  running 
over  these  categories  in  their  minds  and  as- 
sociating their  own  ideas  in  these  classes. 
Men  are  bound  to  make  up  such  pigeon  holes 
for  themselves,  otherwise  there  is  no  thought 
at  all  —  they  must  make  up  for  themselves 
some  sort  of  schedules  in  which  to  associate 
their  ideas  together.  The  nearer  these  sched- 
ules approximate  the  real  order  of  things,  of 
course,  the  better  it  is,  the  more  retentive  the 
memory,  the  more  intense  the  developed 
power  of  attention,  but  they  must  have  the 
schedules,  and  any  well  thought  out  system 
of  classes  is  better  than  the  rubbish  heap  of 
odd  boxes  which  serves  most  men  in  lieu  of 
pigeon  holes. 

The  object  of  classification  is  thus  economy 
and  increased  efficiency  in  the  use  of  books. 
"Use"  is  the  watchword  of  book-classifica- 
tion as  "truth"  or  "true  order"  is  of  theoreti- 
cal classification.  Any  variation  whatever 
from  the  scientific  order  is  permissible  if  so 
be  it  promote  this  end  of  use  —  the  motive  of 
the  whole  process  is  "getting  together  the 
books  most  used  together." 

But  just  here  is  a  snag  on  which  many 
have  split,  including  the  whole  school  of  the 
go-as-you-please   librarians   who   consider   it 


59 

very  practical  to  make  every  petty  little  ad- 
justment to  temporary  needs  that  they  hap 
pen  to  think  of  when  they  think  of  it.  It  is 
also  one  which  we  must  keep  in  mind  in  say- 
ing what  we  do  most  earnestly  say,  that  any 
well-worked-out  system  is  better  than  no  sys- 
tem. The  fact  is  that  while  it  is  true  that 
any  system  is  better  than  no  system  and  even 
the  artificial  schedules  of  mnemonic  subjects 
are  a  vast  improvement  over  the  common  go- 
as-you-please  schedule  which  every  one  makes 
up  for  himself,  nevertheless  it  is  true  that  the 
nearer  classification  gets,  as  a  rule,  to  the 
real  order  of  things,  the  more  fully  it  serves 
the  purpose  of  getting  together  the  books  that 
will  be  most  used  together,  and  especially  of 
getting  the  ideas  together  which  belong  to- 
gether. Thus  those  nearest  right  serve  the 
purpose  of  use  best.  The  nearer,  too,  the 
classification  is  to  the  real  order  of  things 
the  longer  it  will  serve  men's  needs  before 
breaking  down.  Men  will  surely  cling  for 
sound  reason  to  a  familiar  and  well  estab- 
lished order  just  as  long  as  they  can  and 
will  not  lightly  give  it  up  for  a  new  one,  but 
there  must  come  a  time  for  every  system 
when,  as  of  late  in  botany,  the  system  long 
clung  to  must  be  given  up  because  the  new 
one  has  been  clearly  established  as  the  real 
order. 


6o 
Passing  now  to:  .        • 

IV.      THE    KINDS    OF    BOOK    CLASSIFICATION. 

We  have  already  spoken  in  the  first  lecture 
of  the  theoretical  kinds  of  classification.  The 
kinds  of  book  classification  are  the  same  but 
they  have  more  concrete  applications,  com- 
binations and  variations.  It  will  be  worth 
while  to  note  some  of  those  which  are  more 
familiar  in  ordinary  use.  You  have  seen  in 
use,  e.  g.,  (a)  the  natural  or  logical  classifica- 
tion—  books  arranged  in  series  according  to 
degree  of  likeness,  the  ordinary  form  to 
which  we  refer  in  the  use  of  the  word.  You 
have  seen  that  classification  arranged  forward 
in  an  evolutionary  form  from  simple  to  com- 
plex and  also  backward  in  the  strictly  logical 
form  from  the  complex  to  the  simple.  You 
have  seen  the  Baconian  and  the  inverted  Ba- 
conian. 

You  have  seen  also  (b)  the  purely  artificial 
alphabetical  system  where  books  are  arranged 
strictly  by  author  throughout  the  library  as 
used  to  be  the  case  in  the  New  York  State 
Library  under  an  earlier  administration. 

I  am  not  sure  that  I  have  ever  seen  (c)  a 
strictly  alphabetical  subject  arrangement,  but 
we  have  often  seen  large  subdivisions  of  a 
system  arranged  chiefly  alphabetically  by  sub- 
jects.   In  fact  almost  all  classifications  have 


6i 

this  element  in  it,  as  they  usually  reach  sooner 
or  later  the  point  of  arranging  in  the  order  of 
the  "person  biographed"  and  here  it  becomes 
a  strict  alphabetical  classification  by  subjects. 
In  the  same  way  again  (d)  the  strictly 
chronological  by  periods  throughout  a  whole 
library  may  not  be  exclusively  applied  any- 
where, but  it  enters  into  almost  all  classifica- 
tion and  is  a  legitimate  principle  in  its  place. 
This  principle  like  all  others  is  sometimes  car- 
ried to  excess,  but  it  is  hard  to  think  of  a  sys- 
tem where  at  certain  points  the  recognition  of 
dates  and  periods  is  not  a  practical  advantage. 

(e)  This  is  still  more  true  of  geographical 
classification  which  is  still  a  favorite  notion 
with  many  as  a  semi-universal  principle. 
While  this  again  may  not  be  absolutely  in  use 
as  an  exclusive  first  principle,  in  many  libra- 
ries there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  urge  it  as 
at  least  one  of  a  few  primary  principles  and  to 
arrange,  for  example,  things  under  Europe, 
History,  Geology,  Mining,  Agriculture,  etc., 
rather  than  under  Geology,  Agriculture,  etc., 
with  geographical  subdivisions.  As  a  subor- 
dinate principle  it  is  of  course  in  use  in  sub- 
stantially every  practical  library  system. 

(f)  The  primary  division  of  all  books  by 
size  into  three  classes,  folios  and  over,  quar- 
tos, octavos  and  under,  is  one  of  the  common- 
est of  the  older  classifications,  and  even  to-day 


62 

we  are  obliged,  for  reasons  of  space,  to  ob- 
serve it  in  a  sense,  though,  as  a  principle  of 
classification,  it  has  practically  gone  out,  and 
in  libraries  the  principle  of  the  "dummy"  has 
taken  its  place. 

Another  artificial  principle  of  arrangement 
which  we  have  met  is  (g)  the  arrangement 
by  color.  This  is  ordinarily  an  ex  post  facto 
principle,  and  the  colors  are  applied  to  the 
classes  rather  than  the  classes  made  an  induc- 
tion from  the  color.  In  this  form  it  is  common 
enough,  e.  g.,  green  books  may  be  books  on 
Greece,  red  books  on  France,  etc.  One  can 
imagine  a  man  arranging  books  in  a  private 
library  on  the  strict  principle  of  color  for  the 
sake  of  artistic  effect,  but  I  have  never  actual- 
ly quite  met  it,  although  I  fancy  almost  every- 
body makes  some  concession  to  harmony  of 
color  in  a  library  with  colored  bindings  not 
otherwise  classified. 

This  classification  by  color  differs  somewhat 
from  the  principle  of  (h)  classification  ac- 
cording to  binding.  There  are  said  to  be 
known  instances  in  which  the  principle  of 
placing  the  best  bindings  nearest  the  door 
in  a  comprehensive  series  from  the  best  bound 
to  the  worst  was  the  actual  ruling  principle  of 
the  classification  —  and  a  most  excellent  prin- 
ciple it  was  in  a  library  which,  like  one  of 
these  that  I  knew,  was  perhaps  more  suited  to 
be  looked  at  than  looked  into. 


63 

You  have  of  course  heard  also  of  the  theo- 
logical library  where  the  ruling  principle  was 
.(i)  orthodoxy,  the  separation  of  the  sound 
from  the  unsound  —  the  sheep  from  the  goats. 
What  a  chance  by  the  way  for  the  application 
here  of  the  "mnemonic  binding"  —  say  white, 
sheep;  and  black,  goat;  or  blue,  orthodoxy; 
and  yellow,  heterodoxy.  This  indeed  is  one 
of  the  earliest  classifications  of  Christian  the- 
ology. The  ante-Nicene  fathers  divided  their 
books  into  those  "received"  and  "not  received" 
or  else  "orthodox"  and  "heretical." 

(j)  The  form  principle  of  classification  is 
also  sometimes  practically  a  universal  first 
principle.  It  is  used  in  fact  in  all  systems 
where,  e.  g.,  all  encyclopaedias  are  picked  out 
from  the  other  books  in  their  subjects  and  it 
becomes  a  prime  principle  in  the  case  of  those 
libraries  which  put  together  all  encyclopaedias 
including  such  as  those  of  Medicine,  Politi- 
cal Economy  and  the  special  sciences  in  a  de- 
partment of  encyclopaedias.  The  same  thing 
is  true  in  the  matter  of  periodicals. 

An  example  of  what  may  be  called  (k) 
classification  by  literary  value  is  the  putting 
together  of  select  books  in  a  reading  room. 
Another  possible  distinction  is  (1)  classifica- 
tion according  to  interest.  This  usually  has 
the  utilitarian  purpose  of  saving  steps,  but  is 
illustrated    by    the    putting    out    on    special 


64 

shelves  of  the  latest  books  and  the  putting  of 
fiction  and  biography  and  in  general  the  most 
used  books  nearest  the  delivery  desk.  The 
principle  of  (m)  linguistic  classification  is 
also  much  used.  In  the  popular  Ifbrary  this  is 
liable  to  be  a  fundamental  principle,  books 
being  arranged  first  of  all  according  to  lan- 
guage throughout,  etc.  This  principle  always 
comes  in,  too,  at  the  point  where  we  separate 
an  author's  works  into  editions  and  transla- 
tions, (n)  The  classification  which  is  chrono- 
logical by  books  may  arrange  either  in  the 
order  of  their  publication  or  of  their  acces- 
sion to  the  library. 

This  list  of  kinds  of  book  classifications  in 
actual  use  might  be  extended  still  further  — 
(o)  breadth  of  book  sometimes  governs  loca- 
tion, as  in  the  case  of  oblong  folios,  (p) 
thickness  even,  in  the  case  of  broadsides  and 
pamphlets  generally.  There  is  hardly  a  char- 
acteristic imaginable  which  may  not  modify 
the  grouping  on  shelves  at  least:  (q)  weight 
(as  in  the  case  of  inscriptions),  (r)  fragility 
(as  in  the  case  of  papyri),  (s)  financial  value 
(in  the  case  of  rare  books),  etc.,  etc..  All 
these  principles  are  not  only  in  use  but  are 
legitimately  in  use,  for  it  is  the  useful  pur- 
pose which  determines,  and  if  in  any  case 
the  most  useful  service  which  classification 
can  perform  for  its  users  is,  say,  to  separate 


6s 

the  orthodox  and  unorthodox,  then  this  be- 
comes legitimately  the  prime  principle,  and 
after  it  but  only  after  it  the  logical,  historical, 
etc.,  principles  may  come  in.  It  is  clear  there- 
fore that  the  kind  of  classification  to  be 
used  —  judged  by  its  leading  principle  —  de- 
pends on  the  kind  of  use  to  which  it  is  to  be 
put. 

This  gives  us  a  clue  in  the  case  of  the  spe- 
cial libraries,  but  what  of  the  general  libra- 
ries? What  is  the  prime  principle  for  them, 
and  is  there  any  order  of  subordination  in  the 
application  of  the  secondary  principles?  With 
so  many  principles  in  actual  use  as  dominat- 
ing principles  is  there  any  way  of  deciding 
when  doctors  disagree?  I  say  yes.  When 
doctors  disagree  we  let  some  principle  decide. 
In  this  case,  as  the  first  lecture  tried  to  show, 
the  fundamental  law  is  the  law  of  likeness. 
The  order  which  dominates  is  the  one  which 
takes  into  account  the  greatest  number  of 
points  of  likeness,  and  in  the  use  of  subordi- 
nate principles  the  order  of  sequence  in  use  de- 
pends on  the  same  law.  The  true  order,  ac- 
cording to  total  points  of  likeness  as  here  in- 
terpreted (whether  interpretation  it  just  or  not 
each  must  judge  for  himself)  is  as  follows :  (i) 
The  logical  order  or  order  of  likeness  of  con- 
tents following  the  order  of  real  things  fronj 
the  complex  to  the  simple.    This,  which  is  the 


66 

inverted  evolutionary  order,  is  on  the  whole 
better  practically  as  well  than  the  evolutionary 
or  the  order  from  the  simple  to  the  complex, 
because  the  most  complex  books  containing 
the  greatest  variety  of  subjects  should  precede 
instead  of  follow  their  inclusive  subdivisions 
in  the  book  classification.  Nevertheless  in 
subordinate  parts  the  evolutionary  (or,  what 
is  identical  the  "historical")  order  is  often 
the  more  useful.  (2)  The  geographical  or- 
der or  classification  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  things  in  space  includes  all  kinds  of 
things,  though  each  at  only  a  single  instant 
of  time.  (3)  Chronological  classification  by 
subjects  indicates  the  position  of  only  a  single 
thing  in  space  though  showing  it  at  different 
instants  of  time.  This  exhausts  the  "natural" 
order.  (4)  The  alphabetical  now  follows, 
taking  up  an  artificial  series  at  the  point 
where  the  natural  stops.  It  may  be  alphabeti- 
cal by  subjects  or  alphabetical  by  authors. 

(5)  To  this  should  be  added,  and  ordinarily 
only  after  we  have  gotten  past  the  alphabeti- 
cal by  subjects  and  the  alphabetical  by  au- 
thors, a  second  artificial  form,  the  linguistic. 

(6)  Finally  we  have  the  chronological  by 
books  (not  subjects),  or  the  arrangement  by 
dates  or  dates  of  first  edition,  of  the  works 
of  any  individual  author  in  his  particular 
language.  This  should  only  come  in  as  a  rule 
after  others  have  been  exhausted. 


67 

This  I  take  to  be  the  true  sequence  of  prin- 
ciples as  applied  to  a  classification  for  any 
general  library:  Logical,  geographical,  chron- 
ological by  subjects,  alphabetical,  linguistic, 
chronological  by  books:  e.  g.,  History  (logi- 
cal or  natural)  ;  France  (geographical)  ;  the 
Revolution  (chronological)  ;  Carlyle  (alpha- 
betical) ;  French  translation  (linguistic)  ;  1865 
(chronological  by  books).  Note  that  by 
chronological  is  here  meant  not  the  chrono- 
logical by  accession,  which  is  a  very  common 
usage  at  this  stage,  but  chronological  by  date 
of  publication,  which  is  a  very  different  thing. 
The  accession  sequence  only  comes  in  where 
there  are  two  books  of  the  same  date  and 
hardly  deserves  to  be  called  a  "principle." 
We  have  here  thus  no  less  than  six  distinct 
principles  of  classification  all  legitimately  used 
in  one  system  and  all  in  use  in  most  approved 
systems. 

V.     UKENESS   BETWEEN   THEORETICAL  CLASSIFI- 
CATION AND  BOOK  CLASSIFICATION. 

Having  defined  thus  the  object  and  kinds 
of  book  classification  we  return  again  to  the 
prime  object  of  the  paper,  which  is  to  call 
attention  to  the  differences  between  theoreti- 
cal and  practical  classification  and  the  ad- 
justments of  the  former  necessary  in  the  lat-, 
ter.    We  must  not  forget,  however,  that  the 


68 

two  things  are  essentially  the  same,  and  that 
the  principles  which  guide  in  forming  as  well 
as  the  actual  sequence  of  the  theoretical  order 
are  to  be  regarded  as  the  normal  which  hold 
except  as  they  have  to  be  modified  by  prac- 
tical conditions. 

Attention  was  called  in  the  introduction  to 
the  first  lecture  to  the  meaning  and  laws  as 
well  as  to  the  kinds  of  classification,  univer- 
sally considered.  The  same  considerations  as 
to  the  real  nature  of  the  act  and  the  laws 
which  govern  the  process  hold  in  the  forma- 
tion and  application  of  a  practical  book  clas- 
sification. Among  these  the  chief  thing  to 
be  kept  in  mind  is  the  fact  that  the  arrange- 
ment of  your  books  as  a  whole  and  in  detail 
is  a  discrimination  of  likeness  and  an  arrang- 
ing of  the  books  according  to  likeness  or  un- 
likeness  from  the  most  complex  to  the  sim- 
plest. There  is  no  definition  that  was  there 
given  or  law  there  defined  which  does  not 
hold  equally  well  for  your  book  classification 
as  principles,  however  much  the  application 
of  them  may  consist  of  exceptions,  and  the 
quintessence  of  the  whole  is  the  law  of  like- 
ness itself  —  especially  the  law  of  sequence 
from  the  like  to  the  like-and-unlike,  or  vice 
versa.  The  principle  of  likeness  and  of  se- 
quence through  the  more  to  the  less  alike 
governs  the  whole  process  of  practical  clas- 


69 

sification ;  the  order  of  the  classes  in  the  mak- 
ing of  schedules;  the  preparing  of  notation, 
the  plan  of  arranging  the  books  on  the  shelves 
or  the  cards  in  their  cases,  and  tine  actual 
practice  of  assigning  of  books  to  their  places. 
It  may  be  said  therefore  that  theoretical  and 
practical  classification  are  absolutely  alike  in 
their  principles,  however  radically  they  may 
differ  in  their  application  to  concrete  things. 

VL      DIFFERENCES   BETWEEN    THEORETICAL   CLAS- 
SIFICATION AND  BOOK  CLASSIFICATION. 

These  differences  may  be  roughly  summed 
up  as  differences  which  come  to  light  in  mak- 
ing the  schedules,  in  making  a  notation,  in 
arranging  cards,  in  locating  books  on  shelves, 
in  the  practical  work  of  assigning  books  to 
their  classes.  Under  each  of  these  classes 
variations  arise,  chiefly  from  the  nature  of  the 
material  and  circumstances  and  the  intended 

use. 

I.    Making  the  schedules. 

The  basis  of  the  schedules  for  book  classi- 
fication is  of  course  the  order  and  divisions 
of  the  sciences.  It  has  already  been  said  that 
in  general  the  closer  a  classification  can  get 
to  the  true  order  of  the  sciences  and  the 
closer  it  can  keep  to  it  the  better  the  system 
will  be  and  the  longer  it  will  last.  True  as 
this  is,  it  is  nevertheless  also  true  that  there 


70 

are  many  adjustments  of  the  pure  order  of 
the  sciences  useful  and  even  necessary  in 
making  the  classes  in  book  classification,  and 
that  the  too  wooden  insistence  on  having  the 
schedules  follow  the  order  of  the  sciences 
will  often  miss  the  real  spirit  of  classification 
and  result  in  putting  books  where  a  delicate 
common  sense  would  not  put  them.  In  short, 
the  common  sense  adaptation  is  often  at  bot- 
tom the  more  scientific. 

(A).    Modification  by  circumstances. 

If  you  wish  this  expressed  in  technical 
terms  I  should  say  "variations  arising  from 
environment." 

For  most  librarians  the  making  of  a  classi- 
fication is  merely  a  selection  of  one  already 
made.  They  make  their  schedules  thus  whole- 
sale. An  important  question  in  the  selection 
of  such  a  ready  made  system  of  classification 
for  any  individual  library  is  the  question 
whether  that  system  is  actually  much  used. 
After  all  that  I  have  said  about  conservatism 
and  the  petrifaction  of  ideas,  I  shall  not  be 
misunderstood  in  saying  that  the  first  prin- 
ciple in  the  construction  (or  choice)  of  a 
classification  is  a  true  conservatism.  The 
very  fact  that  a  large  number  of  people  do 
think  already  in  certain  schedules,  that  large 
amounts  of  actual  material  have  already  been 
arranged  in  these  schedules,  is  in  itself  a  rea- 


71 

son  for  wise  conservatism.  This,  you  will 
note  carefully,  is  especially  true  when  the 
general  spirit  of  the  prevailing  classification 
is  not  directly  contradictory  to  the  natural 
order.  The  great  gain  to  librarians  trained 
in  one  set  of  schedules  or  to  users  similarly 
trained,  in  being  able,  in  passing  from  one 
library  to  another,  to  use  the  same  system 
is  obvious.  In  cases  therefore  where  the  main 
classes  do  not  overlap  and  contradict  one 
another  and  especially  when  the  variations 
are  merely  matters  of  geographical  order  or 
personal  taste,  the  giving  up  of  a  practical  sys- 
tem actually  in  use  for  one  ideally  better  is 
to  be  deprecated,  except  when  the  new  is  so 
markedly  better  that  it  is  likely  to  command 
general  use.  For  this  reason  the  Dewey  Deci- 
mal Qassification,  from  the  very  fact  of  its 
wide  use,  will  probably  endure  long  after 
some  of  the  systems  now  rising,  which  have 
more  pretension  to  follow  the  true  order  of 
the  sciences  are  dead  (though  having  said 
this  much  it  should  be  said  also  that  the  ten- 
acity of  the  Dewey  Qassification  is  due  even 
more  to  a  certain  versatility  and  hospitality 
towards  adjustments  within  its  limits).  It 
is  for  this  reason,  too,  together  with  the  other 
very  important  circumstance  that  they  are 
more  fully  worked  out  than  others,  that  li- 
brarians generally,  even  those  who  like  the 


writer  have  a  special  system  better  adapted 
as  they  think  to  their  own  libraries,  always 
advise  other  librarians  to  "take  Dewey  or 
Cutter"  rather  than  their  own.  What  is  true 
of  a  general  system  is  true  also  of  its  parts, 
and  one  must  take  into  account  in  any  attempt 
to  make  a  system,  e.  g.,  the  conventional  di- 
visions of  Economics  or  Philosophy  and  the 
Hagenbachian  divisions  of  Theology.  The 
fact  that  men  are  in  the  habit  of  looking  for 
things  under  certain  heads  is  quite  reason 
ejiough  for  a  strict  conservatism  when  there 
is  question  of  changing  to  some  other  order. 

(B).    Variation  arising  from  the  nature  of 

books. 
The  order  of  things  and  the  corresponding 
order  of  sciences  follow  naturally  in  their 
statement  the  order  of  progress  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  like  to  the 
like  and  unlike,  from  the  less  various,  there- 
fore, to  the  more  various,  from  the  less  to  the 
more  inclusive. 

The  classification  of  books  on  the  other 
hand  does  not  in  the  first  instance  follow  the 
historical  order  or  order  of  complexity,  but  the 
inverse  evolutionary  order,  the  more  to  the 
less  inclusive,  the  unlike  to  the  like.  It  follows 
thus  rather  the  order  in  which  the  human 
mind  proceeds  in  tracing  out  the  order  of 


7i 

things  than  the  natural  order  of  things  it- 
self. If  we  were  following  the  order  from  the 
less  to  the  more  inclusive  we  would  place, 
say,  first  tieatises  on  individual  animals,  then 
treatises  on  a  class  of  animals,  then  treatises 
on  all  animals,  then  on  all  living  things,  then 
on  all  things  living  and  lifeless.  This  would 
be  most  awkward  in  practical  classification, 
where  we  are  accustomed  to  the  idea  that  the 
whole  should  precede  the  parts.  The  awk- 
wardness comes  perhaps  partly  as  the  result 
of  habit.  Certainly  it  would  look  queer 
enough  (although  the  matter  is  not  wholly 
unprecedented)  to  put  encyclopaedias,  essays 
and  periodicals  at  the  end  rather  than  at  the 
beginning  of  each  class.  It  seems  like  stand- 
ing a  tree  on  its  branches.  But  the  reason  for 
the  queerness  lies  fundamentally  in  the  fact 
of  the  composite  character  of  books  like  en- 
cyclopaedias which  makes  them  "more  com- 
plex" than  any  part  and  puts  them  logically 
after  rather  than  before.  In  an  inverted  evo- 
lutionary order,  however,  this  comes  out  right. 
While  therefore  it  is  of  no  very  great  prac- 
tical importance  in  this  matter  whether  we 
write  backwards  or  forwards  provided  we  get 
all  the  letters  in  their  proper  order,  and  while 
either  method  or  a  mixed  method  is  proved 
to  be  practical  in  use,  nevertheless  at  present 
writing  I  incline  to  prefer  an  order  of  The- 


74 

ology,  Anthropology,  Biology,  Hylology,  rath- 
er than  Hylology,  Biology,  Anthropology,  and 
Theology,  but  in  this  I  do  not  feel  very  dog- 
matic. 

(C).    Differences  arising  from  intended  use. 

Again,  the  practical  classification  of  books 
is  conditioned  by  the  kind  of  use  which  is  to 
be  made  of  the  books.  The  kind  of  classifi- 
cation, e.  g.,  which  is  needed  in  a  free  public 
library  is  not  necessarily  the  same  in  its 
details  as  that  which  is  suited  to  a  universi- 
ty library,  although  the  general  outline  may 
be  the  same.  The  chief  differences  regard 
(l)  the  adjustment  to  building,  (2)  the  prin- 
ciples of  subdivision,  (3)  the  question  of  de- 
gree and  proportion  in  subdivision. 

(i).    Adjustment  to  building. 

The  general  order  in  which  the  main  classes 
are  to  be  placed  with  reference  to  one  another 
in  a  library  may  not  be  so  much  determined 
by  their  natural  relation  as  by  the  shape  of 
the  library  building  and  by  the  rule  that  the 
most  used  books  are  to  be  placed  nearest  the 
delivery  desk.  Most  public  libraries  keep  fic- 
tion nearest  the  door.  One  famous  library 
already  mentioned  and  not  wholly  without 
its  counterpart  in  others,  classified  its  books 
so  that  the  best  bound  ones   should  come 


75 

nearest  the  door.  This  was  correct.  This 
being  the  chief  use,  the  books  were  placed 
where  they  would  be  most  used.  According 
to  the  law  of  use  books  should  be  arranged 
from  the  most  to  the  least  used.  In  a  refer- 
ence library,  therefore,  where  the  reading 
room  is  at  the  top  of  the  building,  as  will  be 
the  case  in  the  New  York  Public  Library, 
there  most  used  classes  should  be  nearest  the 
top,  and  where,  as  is  generally  the  case,  the 
reading  room  is  at  the  bottom,  there  they 
should  be  nearest  the  bottom.  In  case  it  hap- 
pens to  be  a  stack  after  Mr.  Winsor's  favorite 
scheme,  exemplified  in  the  Cambridge  Public 
Library,  where  delivery  desk  is  at  the  middle 
of  three  floors,  then  most  used  classes  should 
be  on  the  middle  floor.  In  all  circulating  libra- 
ries the  most  used  classes  should  be  nearest  the 
door.  In  an  agricultural  college,  therefore, 
Agfriculture  should  be  nearest  the  desk,  and 
in  medical,  theologfical,  engineering,  etc., 
schools,  the  same  law  would  prevail.  In  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Library, 
Massachusetts  history,  and  in  the  New  Jersey 
Historical  Society  Library,  New  Jersey  his- 
tory would  be  nearest  the  desk.  As  a  matter  of 
actual  practice,  something  like  this  is  actual- 
ly done  even  when  the  notation  follows  a  dif- 
ferent order.  It  is  regarded  as  a  small  mat- 
ter whether  main  divisions  follow  the  nota- 


76 

tion  order  or  not.  It  is  this  practice  by  the 
way  which  tends  to  remove  the  chief  practi- 
cal objection  to  the  D.  C.  by  allowing  the 

400s  and  the  8oos  to  be  put  side  by  side. 

(2).  The  principles  of  subdivision. 
This  question  of  the  400s  and  8oos  in  the 
D.  C.  is  a  good  illustration  of  a  possible 
modification  of  the  scientific  order  by  the  law 
of  putting  together  the  books  most  used  to- 
gether. In  some  libraries  "Language"  and 
"Literature"  are  main  classes  and  books  are 
arranged  under  each  in  the  order  of  lan- 
guages. In  other  libraries  "Language  and 
literature"  is  one  class  divided  by  languages 
and  then  under  each  lang^uage  ag^in  divided 
into  "Philology  and  literature."  This  latter 
rather  than  the  D.  C.  method  is  usually  pre- 
ferred in  a  college  library  according  to  the 
law  of  the  most  used,  since  a  "department" 
generally  is  linguistic  and  the  same  professor 
handles  both  language  and  literature.  This 
is  typical  of  all  branches  in  a  college  library 
where  the  department  generally  rules  —  and 
departments  (strange  as  it  may  seem)  by  no 
means  strictly  follow  the  real  order  and  di- 
visions of  the  sciences.  In  each  case,  which- 
ever order  is  finally  pitched  on,  the  ground  of 
choice  is,  rightly,  less  the  "real  order"  than 
the  order  in  which  the  boeks  are  used  to- 
gether. 


77 

(3).    The  question  of  degree  and  proportion 
in  subdivision. 

This  question  is  in  brief  the  burning  ques- 
tion of  close  or  broad  classification;  or  at 
least  the  question  which  once  was  burning  — 
the  question  in  other  words  whether  classifi- 
cation distinctions  shall  be  carried  beyond  the 
limit  even  of  the  minutest  subdivision  of  the 
sciences  or  shall  be  limited  to  the  most  gen- 
eral schedules.  The  controlling  law  in  the 
matter  is  the  principle  of  usefulness  and  the 
general  rule  is  "the  greater  the  number  of 
different  books  the  closer  the  classification." 
So  long  as  there  is  only  a  shelf-full  or  two, 
a  class  subdivision  is  of  little  importance; 
when  there  are  a  hundred  or  two  shelf-fulls 
it  becomes  a  matter  of  great  importance.  It 
follows  therefore  that  every  library  feels  this 
need  of  minute  classification  in  its  specialties 
and  can  be  satisfied  with  broad  classes  in  the 
rest.  Thus  the  Halle  Library  devotes  about 
one-third  of  all  its  schedules  to  a  very  minute 
subdivision  of  Law.  In  the  same  way  we 
at  Princeton  wish  to  use  three  times  as  many 
prime  schedules  for  New  Jersey  history  as 
we  do  for  the  history  of  any  other  state,  and 
fifty  times  as  many  for  the  United  States  as 
for  Holland.  The  library  of  a  zoological 
museum  really  needs  to  follow  the  scientific 
subdivisions  of  animal   classes   to   the  verj' 


78 

farthest  sub-class,  but  it  may  arrange  such 
botanical  works  as  it  happens  to  have  in  a 
very  few  classes.  The  proportion  in  sub- 
division therefore  depends  on  the  kind  of 
books  that  the  use  of  the  library  calls  for. 
That  this  proportion  would  be,  in  a  general 
classification,  a  pretty  hard  thing  to  judge, 
is  witnessed  by  Dr.  Wire's  complaint  against 
the  Decimal  Classification,  that  it  gives  lOo 
places  each  to  Philosophy  and  Theology 
where  they  should  be  joined  in  one!  There 
are  still,  probably,  as  many  books  on  the- 
ology in  existence  as  on  all  the  other  sciences 
put  together,  and  for  a  universal  system  surely 
one-tenth  of  the  schedules  is  none  too  many. 

The  question  of  degree  of  subdivision  is 
really  included  in  what  has  been  said.  No 
general  scheme  of  classification  has  ever  been 
carried  out  in  all  its  parts  to  the  minuteness 
with  which  these  parts  have  been  carried  out 
in  special  libraries.  I  doubt  if  100,000  sched- 
ules would  do  this.  As  a  rule  the  best  gen- 
eral systems  carry  to  about  10,000  places,  and 
the  question  over  which  dispute  has  raged  so 
violently  may  fairly  be  said  to  reduce  itself  to 
a  question,  between  100,  1000  and  10,000. 

I  hope  that  we  are  now  agreed  on  close 
classification,  but  for  fear  that  we  may  not 
all  be  fully  persuaded,  a  word  or  two  more 
on  the   matter.    The  practical   use    of    the 


79 

broad  classification  is  simply  to  help  a  man 
who  wants  a  specific  book  and  has  access  to 
the  books  to  go  somewhat  more  quickly  to 
that  specific  book  in  a  broad  class  by  begin- 
ning the  alphabetical  arrangement  by  authors 
earlier.  But  this  help  would  be  a  greater  one 
still  if  the  whole  library  were  arranged  alpha- 
betically, and  this  I  take  to  be  the  inevitable 
logical  end  of  a  refusal  to  carry  close  classi- 
fication to  a  somewhat  extreme  degree  of 
minuteness.  As  a  matter  of  logic,  too,  if  the 
broad  classifier  is  consistent  he  must  not  even 
arrange  by  authors  under  one  of  his  broad 
classes  (for  that  is  making  alphabetical 
classes)  but  must  leave  belter  skelter.  In  real- 
ity the  broad  classifier  is  as  close  as  the  closest 
and  differs  merely  in  insisting  that  the  logical 
subdivision  according  to  likeness  shall  be 
abandoned  for  an  artificial  division  according 
to  name,  size,  color,  or  what  not,  at  an  earlier 
stJ^e  than  his  "close"  adversary.  For  my  own 
part  I  see  no  good  scientific  reason,  and  in- 
deed no  practical  reason  why,  even  for  a 
small  number  of  books,  it  is  not  better  to 
have  the  most  minute  logical  subdivision,  pro- 
viding there  is  a  good  index  to  the  classifica- 
tion and  an  author  index  to  books.  All  the 
books  of  a  given  subject  are  together  just  the 
same  in  the  close  as  in  the  broad,  and  at  least 
in  the  cases  where  you  are  after  the  more 


8o 

specific  subject  you  make  a  great  gain  through 
getting  the  greater  bulk  of  material  together 
at  once,  whereas  on  the  other  hand,  if  you  are 
referring  to  a  specific  book,  the  reference 
from  catlog  to  this  book  is  just  as  specific, 
and  there  is  no  loss.  The  rule  of  this  matter 
seems  to  me  to  be  to  carry  classification  to 
the  last  degree  of  real  natural  likeness,  and 
as  much  farther  in  the  various  artificial  forms 
as  the  special  conditions  of  the  library  re- 
quire, but  the  "broad  classifier"  will,  if  he 
thinks  it  more  useful,  properly  increase  or 
diminish  the  natural  subdivisions  according 
to  the  special  needs  of  his  library. 

2.    Making  a  notation. 

A  notation  is  simply  a  shorthand  series  of 
names  for  classes.  There  are  three  methods 
which  may  be  distinguished  among  attempts 
at  a  representation  of  the  whole  of  things: 
(i)  The  systematic  encyclopaedia,  which  at- 
tempts to  give  a  description  of  all  things  in  a 
form  more  or  less  full  of  detail  as  the  case 
may  be,  from  a  complete  treatise  down  to  the 
barest  definition.  (2)  The  "system  of  classi- 
fication" with  which  we  librarians  are  familiar, 
which  gives  the  same  outline,  but  defines  each 
class  by  a  single  word  only  or  a  phrase  at 
most.  (3)  The  "notation"  which  is  really  a 
condensed  word   for  each  class,  but  which 


8i 

nevertheless  may  and  should  convey  a  repre- 
sentation not  merely  of  the  division,  but  also 
of  the  sequence,  and  not  only  of  the  artificial 
sequence,  but  of  the  logical  sequence,  so  far 
as  it  can  be  expressed. 

In  preparing  a  notation  therefore  the  logical 
and  mnemonic  element  is  of  prime  importance. 
This  element  may  exist  either  with  the  alpha- 
betical or  with  the  decimal  or  with  the  mixed 
system  of  notation.  It  cannot  so  well  exist 
with  the  consecutive  whole  number  and  does 
not  exist  at  all  in  the  notation  which  is  mne- 
monic in  the  sense  of  beginning  with  the  first 
letters  of  the  name  of  the  class  —  the  system 
which  is,  I  believe,  in  use  in  the  Sorbonne, 
and  in  some  American  libraries,  and  which 
has  been  accepted  by  Mr.  Langton  and  M. 
Maire. 

It  is  not  a  part  of  the  plan  of  this  lecture 
to  go  into  the  discussion  of  the  various  com- 
binations which  serve  as  notations,  except  to 
say  that  the  idea  of  a  notation  seems  to  be 
one  distinctly  numerical,  and  that  every  prac- 
tical system  sooner  or  later  does  make  use  of 
both  letters  and  figures.  It  is  only  a  question 
of  at  which  end  or  where  in  the  middle  the 
letters  shall  go,  and  whether  the  figures  shall 
be  decimal  (i.  e.,  logical)  or  consecutive, 
Roman  or  Arabic.  As  a  matter  of  personal, 
opinion,  I  hold  that  a  classification  should  be 


82 

strictly  logical  throughout  in  one  series  with 
decimal  notation,  but  that  where  portions  of 
the  library  must  be  differentiated  into  separ- 
ately located  collections  of  Reference,  Kept 
books,  Mss.,  etc.,  this  should  be  so  done  by 
the  prefixing  of  letters.  Theoretically,  how- 
ever, one  may  hold  himself  free  to  introduce 
his  new  symbol  at  any  point  whatever  in  his 
number.  It  is  a  matter  of  practical  judg- 
ment as  to  whether  points  shall  be  introduced 
after  three  figures  or  four  figures,  or  whether 
the  decimal  series  shall  be  broken  up  after 
certain  distance  or  not,  e.  g.,  by  introducing 
the  initial  letter  with  the  author  number,  as 
in  the  Cutter  table,  or  keeping  the  decimal 
still  with  authors,  as  we  do.  However  that 
may  be,  the  strictly  logical  notation  must  be 
broken  at  times  by  the  need  of  separating 
certain  classes  of  books  from  their  logical  or- 
der and  indicating  this  difference  in  the  nota- 
tion. 

The  choice  of  notation  again  is  limited  by 
the  ability  of  the  users,  and  what  will  pass 
well  in  a  learned  library  may  not  do  so  well 
in  a  popular  one.  Theoretically  therefore  one 
may  use  Roman,  Italic,  Greek,  Hebrew  and 
what  not  letters,  Roman  and  Arabic  numerals 
all  together,  and  there  are  systems  which  at- 
tempt nearly  all,  but  practically  the  simpler 
a  system  is  the  better. 


83 
3-     The  classification  of  the  card  catalog. 

The  practical  adjustments  required  for  use 
are  less  in  card  classification  than  in  the  ac- 
tual location  of  books  on  shelves,  simply  be- 
cause the  list  of  the  contents  of  books  can  be 
broken  up  on  cards  while  the  books  them- 
selves cannot.  It  comes  therefore  near  to 
being  the  science  of  which  book  classification 
is  the  art.  Books  are  in  card  catalogs  re- 
solved into  their  elements  in  some  sort  as 
molecules  into  their  atoms  by  the  chemist. 
This  breaking  up  is,  however,  only  relative 
and  partial  —  no  one,  e.  g.,  analyzes  an  ency- 
clop?edia  in  the  general  catalogs  or  wants  to. 
The  catalog  would  get  altogether  too  cum- 
bersome. Moreover,  the  breaking  up  must 
still  leave  unbroken  sections,  and  is  rather 
the  breaking  of  rocks  into  fragments  than  re- 
solving them  chemically  into  their  elements, 
as  has  been  already  suggested.  The  varia- 
tions are  at  bottom,  therefore,  the  same  as  in 
book  location,  though  less  marked. 

4     The  classification  of  books  on  the  shelves. 

The  actual  putting  together  of  books  in 
groups  on  the  shelves  is  conditioned  practic- 
ally in  the  first  place  by  the  heterogeneous 
character  of  many  books,  such  as  encyclo-, 
paedias,   essays,  periodicals,    etc.    There    are 


84 

those  who  on  a  small  scale  go  so  far  as  to  at- 
tempt to  break  up  their  periodicals  and  to 
classify  the  individual  articles,  but  this  scheme 
cannot  be  carried  very  far.  Books  must,  as  a 
rule,  be  handled  as  a  whole  just  as  the  phys- 
iographer handles  his  conglomerate  mass,  not 
as  the  chemist  who  resolves  his  into  the  indi- 
vidual atoms. 

A  second  practical  conditioning  of  the  classi- 
fication of  books  on  the  shelves  is  the  matter 
of  size.  I  have  gone  so  far  as  to  stand  up  the 
Paris  Polyglot  beside  the  little  Stevens  edi- 
tion, but  the  most  fanatical  advocate  of  com- 
plete sequence  on  the  shelves  would  not  dare 
put  some  elephant  folios  that  you  have  seen 
next  to  the  Pickering  classics.  There  must 
be  a  limit  somewhere.  This  does  not  neces- 
sarily affect  the  schedules.  It  need  not  even 
affect  the  notation,  although  it  generally  does 
so.  The  user  must  simply  know  that  he  must 
go  to  two  or  three  series  of  books  instead  of 
one  series  in  order  to  completely  exhaust  the 
material  of  his  subject,  and  the  modern  sys- 
tem of  "dummies"  even  saves  him  much  of 
the  need  of  this,  and  he  need  only  examine 
one  series  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  if  he  is 
tolerably  familiar  with  the  bibliography  of  his 
subject.  At  the  very  best,  however,  the  size 
does  limit  the  actual  putting  of  all  books  to- 
gether in  their  "natural"  order. 


8s 

This  same  thing  is  true  where  books  of 
special  value,  or  books  considered  unsuitable 
for  general  reading  on  account  of  immorality 
or  (in  special  libraries)  unorthodoxy,  have 
to  be  locked  up  behind  the  scenes.  The  the- 
oretical order  is  practically  disturbed. 

5.    The  putting  of  the  books  in  their  classes. 

By  this  is  meant  the  actual  work  of  classi- 
fication on  the  part  of  the  classifier.  Even 
at  this  stage,  after  the  schedules,  the  nota- 
tion and  all  the  rules  for  location  have  been 
well  settled,  the  need  of  adjustment  of  the 
theoretical  to  practical  use  continues.  If,  for 
example,  a  university  has  a  Department  of 
Economics  and  no  Department  of  Agriculture, 
why,  then,  should  a  book  on  agricultural 
prices  be  placed  the  whole  distance  of  the  li- 
brary away  from  Economics  under  Agricul- 
ture, instead  of  under  Agricultural  produc- 
tion in  Economics?  Yet  in  a  university  with 
an  agricultural  department  it  might  be  much 
more  important  under  Agriculture  than  un- 
der Production.  In  the  same  way  a  book  on 
railways  in  all  their  aspects  in  a  technologi- 
cal school  might  belong  under  Engfineering, 
and  in  a  business  college  under  Business,  and 
in  an  arts  college  under  Economics. 

It  is  just  such  common  sense  adjustments 
as  this  which  test  the  mettle  of  the  classifier, 


86 

and  it  is  the  fact  of  this  need  which  makes 
the  really  good  classifier  so  rare. 

If  it  were  possible  to  make  classification  in 
such  way  that  a  mechanical  application 
would  provide  for  all  cases  it  would  be  an- 
other matter.  As  it  is,  the  variety  is  endless 
and  the  thing  to  be  remembered  is  that  the 
controlling  law  for  all  variation  is  the  law  of 
use.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  the  prevailing 
law  of  all  normal  classification  is  likeness, 
and  you  are  (theoretically)  pretty  well 
equipped  for  your  work. 

By  this  law  of  likeness  is  meant  chiefly  that 
law  of  systematic  progression  from  the  like 
to  the  like,  and  unlike  which  we  have  called 
progress  in  complexity.  The  whole  art  of 
classifying  in  a  nutshell  lies  in  the  ability  to 
discriminate  the  like  from  the  unlike,  the 
less  from  the  more  inclusive.  It  is  intended 
to  suggest  that  the  fact  that  classification  is 
by  nature  a  putting  together  of  like  things 
makes  this  idea  of  "likeness"  the  prevailing 
id«a  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  every  aspect  of  the 
process. 

VII.      CRITERIA   OF   A   PRACTICAL   BOOK   CLASSIFI- 
CATION. 

What,  then,  are  the  criteria  of  a  good  classi- 
fication for  books? 


87 

1.  It  should  follow  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
order  of  things.  A  properly  classified  library 
is  perhaps  the  nearest  thing  that  there  is  to 
a  microcosm.  A  human  mind  which  knew 
all  things  might  be  more  perfect  in  this  re- 
gard, but  in  reality  no  one  can  or  does  keep 
the  whole  of  things  in  mind  as  a  library  does. 
It  must  therefore  follow  the  order  of  com- 
plexity or  of  history,  or,  if  you  please,  of 
evolution. 

2.  It  should  be  carried  out  in  minute  de- 
tail. 

3.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  notation 
which  will  allow  for  indefinite  subdivision, 
using  mixed  symbols,  but  with  a  predominant 
decimal  base. 

4.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  detailed  and 
specific  index. 

5.  The  value  of  such  a  system  is  increased 
in  direct  ratio  to  the  generalness  ofi  its 
use. 

How  do  existing  systems  answer  these  re- 
quirements? The  Halle  system  is  dispropor- 
tionate and  its  notation  entirely  too  complex; 
but  it  is  in  some  respects  the  most  logical  of 
leading  systems.  The  system  of  Bonazzi  is 
too  brief  and  broad,  and  its  notation  is  not 
satisfactory.  Rowell's  University  of  Califor- 
nia system  is  also  too  brief,  and  its  notation 
cumbersome  for  interpolation.    But  it  is  sen- 


sible  in  its  order  and  division.  Practically 
speaking,  the  Decimal  Classification  and  the 
Expansive  Classification  are  the  only  ones 
of  considerable  extent  which  can  be  counted 
finished,  and  the  E.  C,  is  still  a  little  short 
of  that.  In  the  matter  of  criteria  of  use, 
complete  indexing  and  general  practicality, 
the  D.  C.  is  of  course  without  rival.  It 
is  somewhat  out  of  proportion  at  certain 
points,  but  perhaps  not  seriously  so.  Its  gen- 
eral order,  though  in  many  classes  admirable, 
is  less  satisfactory  logically  on  the  whole  than 
either  the  E.  C.  or  the  Halle  system.  The 
E.  C.  is  sensible,  logical,  applies  a  predomi- 
nant alphabetical  notation  with  great  success, 
is  well  indexed  up  to  the  sixth  expansion  and 
is  coming  to  be  a  good  deal  used.  The  final 
expansion,  so  far  as  it  has  gotten,  is  a  monu- 
ment of  patience  and  adequate  scholarship, 
and  demonstrates,  as  it  has  never  been  shown 
before  in  any  system,  that  the  alphabetical 
base  is  a  truly  logical  and  very  flexible  base. 
As  classification  itself  is  the  highest  function 
of  the  librarian's  work,  calling  into  play 
every  faculty  and  every  attainment  of  knowl- 
edge—  the  acme  of  bibliuthecal  work  —  so 
these  two  systems  of  classification  mark  the 
high  water  line  of  American  library  science 
and  are  the  climax  of  its  achievement. 


89 


Vin.      CONCLUSION. 

Do  you  ask  what  then  is  left  of  the  the- 
oretical order  after  all  these  modifications? 
That  is  the  question  which  we  used  to  ask 
of  our  Latin  grammars.  Is  the  "rule"  any- 
thing but  a  hook  on  which  to  hang  the  excep- 
tions? To  this  question  I  answer  that  the 
theoretical  order  is  yet  the  rule,  however 
many  exceptions  there  may  be.  It  is  the 
guide,  master,  and  familiar  in  every  act  and 
thought.  It  is  the  norm  by  which  every  ap- 
plication is  tested,  every  variation  judged.  It 
is  in  short  the  soul  of  that  complex  body, 
often  curiously  modified  by  its  attempt  to  ad- 
just to  environment  and  sometimes  sadly 
twisted  and  deformed  by  unfortunate  acci- 
dents, which  we  call  practical  classification. 
Please  remember  that  I  am  speaking  not  so 
much  now  of  that  theoretical  order  which  I 
myself  have  worked  out  in  these  lectures,  and 
which  may  or  may  not  be  a  contribution  to 
the  matter,  as  of  the  theory  which  underlies 
the  Dewey  and  the  Cutter  system  with  which 
you  have  most  to  do.  Every  system  has  its 
theory  of  order,  and  with  whatever  system 
you  have  to  do,  whether  anything  that  is  now 
or  something  which  you  or  some  one  else  shall 
make,  the  more  thoroughly  you  understand 
and  the  more  steadily  you  keep  in  mind  the 


90 

theory  which  underlies,  the  better  you  will  be 
able  to  make  those  little  adjustments  which 
you  inevitably  must  make  of  any  system  and 
the  more  easily  and  satisfactorily  you  will 
be  able  to  put  the  books  into  the  classes  of 
that  system. 


APPENDIX. 

SYSTEMS  OF  CLASSIFICATION. 

I.      METHOD. 

This  appendix  is  to  be  regarded  as  illustra- 
tive of  the  lectures  rather  than  as  a  mono- 
graph. It  aims  to  furnish  a  bibliographical 
guide  for  the  student  of  classification,  es- 
pecially for  the  library  school  student,  and  its 
method  looks  chiefly  to  the  exhausting  of  the 
most  accessible  sources  in  such  way  that  the 
student  may  feel  that  he  has  references  to 
information  on  all  the  most  generally  recog- 
nized systems,  rather  than  the  information 
itself.  Brief  outlines  are,  however,  given  of  a 
few  systems  and  longer  ones  of  a  very  few 
systems  significant  practically  at  the  present 
time,  and  there  is  rather  a  large  amount  of 
matter  which  may  be  called  original  in  that 
it  is  not  contained  in  any  of  the  usual  sources 
and  has  not  before  been  incorporated  in  the 
literary  "tradition"  of  the  history  of  classifica- 
tion. While,  therefore,  the  matter  has  not 
been  carried  to  a  final  degree  of  scientific 
precision,  it  is  what  may  be  called  a  "rough" 
or  "trial"  bibliographical  history  of  classifi- 


9» 

cation.  The  chief  "roughness"  lies  in  the 
fact  that  many  references,  taken  from  second- 
ary sources,  are  unverified,  as  it  seemed  more 
important  for  the  purpose  to  get  the  material 
together  and  in  shape  for  use  than  to  at- 
tempt an  accuracy  which  would  require  a  long 
postponement  of  publication.  A  good  deal  of 
the  matter,  however,  is  actually  from  the  orig- 
inal or  has  been  verified  by  the  original,  and 
this  applies  to  almost  every  one  of  the  sig- 
nificant systems. 

The  plan  has  been  to  include  all  systems 
recognized  in  the  histories  of  classification 
without  much  regard  to  their  value,  but,  in 
the  supplementary  matter,  to  introduce  only 
those  which  for  one  reason  or  another  are  of 
some  historical  significance.  The  list  could, 
of  course,  have  been  greatly  increased  by 
the  introduction  of  mere  variations  or  in- 
significant schemes,  and  some  of  more  or  less 
importance  may  have  been  omitted  by  inad- 
vertence, but  in  general  if  omitted  the  sys- 
tem may  be  counted  obscure  or  unimportant. 

In  the  bibliographical  references  some  spe- 
cial pains  has  been  taken  to  indicate  at  least 
one  place  where  the  outline  of  the  system  may 
be  found. 

In  dating  the  systems  the  date  of  first  pub- 
lication is  the  basis,  but  in  the  case  of  libra- 
ries where  the  system  has  been  long  in  use 


93 

before  the  first  memorandum  of  publication 
(British  Museum)  date  of  first  use  is  given. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  form  of  classifica- 
tion often  changes  in  various  editions  it  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  the  outline  when 
gfiven  is  not  always  either  the  earliest  or 
latest  form. 

n.      CLASSIFICATION  OF  CLASSIFICATIONS. 

Systems  of  classification,  or  as  they  used 
generally  to  be  called  "bibliographical  sys- 
tems," are  chiefly  of  five  kinds:  (i)  The  phil- 
osophical, or  scientific  —  those  concerned  ab- 
stractly with  the  order  of  the  sciences  or 
the  order  of  things;  (2)  the  pedagogic,  or 
those  constructed  with  referencse  to  courses 
of  education;  (3)  the  encyclopaedic,  closely 
resembling  in  aim  the  pedagogic,  but  intended 
to  include  some  material  as  well  as  outline; 
(4)  the  bibliographic,  or  those  suited  to  the 
arrangement  of  titles  of  books  in  a  bibliogra- 
phy; and  finally  (5)  the  systems  for  classi- 
fying books  on  the  shelves  of  a  library,  which, 
if  you  need  a  technical  name,  may  be  called 
"bibliothetic."  The  first  three  may  be  re- 
garded as  coming  under  the  heading  of  the 
theoretical,  in  that  their  authors  are  free  to 
arrange  the  subjects  at  will  according  to  their 
ideas.     The    two    latter    belong    to    practical 


94 

classification,  in  that  they  deal  with  masses 
which  are  already  concretely  formed  and  they 
must  therefore  be  adjusted  according  to  the 
nature  of  this  material.  The  classification  of 
titles  or  the  bibliographic  is  more  flexible 
than  the  "bibliothetic"  in  that  it  does  not  have 
to  take  account,  in  the  location  of  titles,  of 
size,  shape,  material,  etc.,  as  in  the  case  of 
library  classification. 

III.      LITERATURE  REFERRED  TO. 

It  is  usually  a  matter  of  surprise  to  the 
new  student  of  classification  to  find  how  many 
systems  have  been  proposed  and  especially 
how  many  times  their  history  has  been  writ- 
ten, more  or  less  fully.  Following  is  a  list 
of  those  sketches  chiefly  used  in  this  appen- 
dix as  being  the  most  comprehensive  and  ac- 
cessible to  the  student. 

AcHARD,  C.  F.  Cours  elementaire  de  biblio- 
graphie.  Marseille,  1806-7.  2  v.,  8°.  [Not 
seen  recently.  Quotations  made  from  Petz- 
holdt.] 
American  Library  Association.  Reports  on 
classification  of  Lamed,  1882;  Lane,  1885; 
Bliss,  1889;  Nelson,  1894;  Wire,  1898;  in 
the  Proceedings  as  published  in  the  Libra- 
ry JOURNAL  for  the  respective  years. 
Bain,  Alexander.      Classification  of  the  sci- 


95 

ences.  In  his:  Logic.  N.  Y.  (1886)  627- 
639  (Appendix  A.)  [A  considerable  num- 
ber of  philosophical  systems  with  good  criti- 
cal discussions.] 

Brown,  J.  D.  Manual  of  library  classification 
and  shelf  arrangement.  Lond.,  1898.  12°. 
[Valuable  as  bringing  up  to  date  and  intro- 
duces some  new-old  systems  but  does  not 
treat  old  exhaustively.] 

Cave,  Alfred.  An  introduction  to  theology. 
Edin.,  1896.  8°.  pp.  68-80:  Place  of  the- 
ology in  the  classification  of  the  sciences. 
[A  few  well  handled  theoretical  systems.] 

Clarke,  Adam.  Bibliographical  systems.  In 
his:  Bibliographical  miscellany.  Lond.,  2 
(1806)    198-218.     [Few  but  detailed.] 

Clarke,  Archibald.  Some  old  treatises  on 
libraries  and  librarian's  work.  In :  The  Li- 
brary 10  (189S)  327-9;  385-95-     [Few.] 

Classification  Schemes.  In :  The  Library  9 
(1897)  203-6;  10  (1898)  97-100;  162-3. 
[Several  of  standard  systems  in  outline.] 

Collan,  K.    Om  bibliografiska  Systemer  och 
Bibliotheksmethoder.     1861.    8°. 
"A    sort    of   extract"    in    Neuer    Anzeigcr 
(1862)  360-4.     [This  extract  in  the  source 
quoted   in   this   appendix.     Original   not 
seen.] 
Petzholdt  (1866)  21  (full  title  and  memor- 
andum of  systems  included.) 


96 

CoNSTANTiN,  L.  A.  Bibliothcconomie.  Paris, 
1839.  8*,  also  1840;  tr.  German  1840,  also 
1842;  tr.  Spanish  1864.  [Ed.  quoted  is  the 
German  1842  refs.  as  given  by  Petzholdt.] 

Denis,  F.  et  alt.  Nouveau  manuel  de  biblio- 
graphie  universelle.  Paris,  1857.  8°.  v. 
I,  pp.  x.-xvi.  [Reprints  from  the  Neuer 
Anzeiger.     Not  seen.] 

Edwards,  Edward.  Memoirs  of  libraries. 
Lond.,  1859.  V.  2,  pp.  761-831,  with  two 
folding  tables,  Classification  systems.  [Ad- 
mirable full  and  useful  survey.] 

Faucheux.  In :  Bulletin  du  bibliophile,  iv. 
13  (1841)  565-73.  [French  only  according 
to  Petzholdt.    Not  seen.] 

FiSKE,  John.  Outlines  of  cosmic  philosophy. 
V.  2.  Bost.,  1875.  8°.  pp.  188-233,  Or- 
ganization of  the  sciences.  [Comte  and 
Spencer.] 

Flint,  Robert.  Classification  of  the  sciences. 
In:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  401-35;  7  (1886) 
483-536.  [Admirable  and  thorough  criti- 
cal survey  of  a  large  number  of  philosophi- 
cal systems.  With  Shields,  best  source  for 
theoretical  systems.] 

FuMAGALLi,  Giuseppe.  Sistemi  di  collo- 
cazione  praticati  nelle  diverse  biblioteche 
italiane  e  straniere.  In  his:  Delia  collo- 
cazione  dei  libri  nelle  Publiche  Biblioteche. 
Firenze  (1890)  91-153.     [Excellent.     Many 


97 

suggestive  outlines  and  specially  interesting 
as  dealing  somewhat  with  notations.  Ad- 
mirable method  and  proportion.  Makes  the 
best  supplement  to  Petzholdt.]  Compare 
also  his  Cataloghi  di  Biblioteche,  1887, 
h  33-76. 

Gar,  Tommaso.  Rassegna  di  sistemi  biblio- 
g^afici  in  ordine  cronologico.  In  his :  Let- 
ture  di  Bibliologia.  Torino  (1868)  257- 
281.  [A  considerable  number  but  not  many 
full  outlines.] 

Graesel,  Arnim.  Grundziige  der  Bibliotheks- 
lehre.  Lpz.,  1890.  12°.  pp.  152-5,  384-8. 
[Excellent.  Very  brief  and  compact  enu- 
meration of  perhaps  thirty  or  forty  systems, 
including  a  few  partial  systems  which  do 
not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  appen- 
dix.] 

HoRNE,  Thomas  Hartwell.  General  treatises 
on  libraries  and  systems  for  classifying 
books.  In  his:  Introduction  to  the  study 
of  Bibliography.  Lond.,  2  (1814),  554-563- 
[Seldom  gives  outlines.] 

HoTTiNGER,  Joh.  Hen.  Bibliothecarius  qua- 
dripartitus.  ,Tiguri,  1664.  8".  pp.  79-88, 
[Topothesia  libraria  sive]  methodus  dispo- 
nendae  et  distribuendae  bibliothecae  in  locos 
communes,  etc.  [Of  considerable  value  for 
older  systems.] 

Kephart,  Horace.     Classification,  in:  U.  S. 


Commissioner  of  Education.  Report  for 
1892-3,  Ch.  IX.  Papers  prepared  for  the 
world's  library  congress,  pp.  861-897. 

Legipontius,  Oliv.  De  adornanda  et  ornanda 
bibliotheca.  Norimb.,  1747.  sm.  4°,  pp. 
44-51,  De  rei  librariae  dispositione.  [Of 
considerable  value  for  older  systems.] 

Lyons,  P.  A.  Encyclopaedia,  In:  Enc.  Brit. 
8  (1878)  190-204.  [Admirable  survey  of 
encyclopaedia  systems.] 

Maxre,  Albert.  Des  systemes  bibliographiques. 
In  his:  Manuel  pratique  du  bibliothecaire. 
Par.  (1896)  181-248.  [Largely  supplemen- 
tary to  older  surveys.  Many  new  systems 
and  many  of  these  in  fairly  full  outline.] 

MiRA,  Giuseppe.  Diversi  sistemi  bibliografici 
tenuti  dai  signori  Ameilhon,  Camus,  Achard. 
Peignot,  Debure,  Barbier,  Brunet,  etc.  In 
his :  Manuale  teorico-pratico  di  bibliografia. 
Palermo,  2  (1862)  121-140.  [Fair  but  with 
Fumagalli,  easily  dispensed  with.] 

Ottino,  Giuseppe.  Sistema  bibliografia.  In 
his:  Bibliografia.  Milano  (1892)  119-147. 
[A  few  select  only.] 

Pearson,  Karl.  The  grammar  of  science. 
Lond.,  1900.  8°.  pp.  504-532,  The  classi- 
fication of  the  sciences,  [Bacon,  Comte, 
Spencer.] 

Peignot,  G.  Systeme  bibliographique.  In 
his:    Dictionnaire   raisonne  de  bibliologie. 


99 

Paris,  2    (1802)   200-281.     [Good  descrip- 
tions with  frequent  rather  full  outlines.] 

Petzholdt,  Julius.  Bibliographische  systeme. 
In  his:  Bibliotheca  bibliographica.  Leip- 
zig, (1866)  20-65.  [113  systems  with  full 
titles  and  outlines.  The  best  general  sur- 
vey to  his  date  and  still  the  best  for  the 
period  before  1866.] 

Petzholdt,  Julius.  Chronologische  Uebersicht 
von  bibliographischen  Systemen.  Separatab- 
druck  aus  dem  Neuen  Anzeiger  fur  Biblio- 
graphic und  Bibliothekswissenschaft.  Dres- 
den, i860. 

Rogers,  Walter  Thomas.  Bibliographical  sys- 
tems. In  his:  Manual  of  bibliography. 
Lond.,  (1891)  129-148.  [Plagiarized  bodi- 
ly from  Ottino.] 

RouvEYRE,  Edouard.  De  la  classification  sys- 
tematique  des  livres.  In  his :  Connaissances 
necessaires  a  un  Bibliophile.  Par.,  2  (1882) 
1-66.     [Few  but  some  very  full  outlines.] 

Shields,  Charles  W.    Philosophia  ultima,  or 
science  of  the  sciences,    v.  2.     N.  Y.,  1889. 
8°.    pp.  52-79.     [With  Flint  the  best  source 
for  theoretical  systems.] 
Of  these  Petzholdt  (113  titles)  is  best  as 

far  as  he  goes;  and  among  the  more  modern 

Fumagalli,  Maire,  and  Brown  are  of  primary 

value  for  book  systems.  Shields  and  Flint  for 

theoretical  systems. 


100 

This  list  by  no  means  exhausts  the  number 
of  sources  even  of  those  which  the  author 
has  now  at  hand  (e.g.  Michael  Denis, 
Greenwood's  Public  libraries,  various  articles 
on  Encyclopaedia,  etc.),  but,  so  far  as  he  can 
judge,  there  is  little  new  material  in  other 
sources. 

IV.      THEORETICAL  SYSTEMS. 

It  may  not  be  too  far  fetched  to  say  that 
the  history  of  theoretical  classification  began 
with  the  division  of  knowledge  into  the 
knowledge  of  good  and  the  knowledge  of 
evil,  in  which  case  Eve's  tree  would  rival  the 
famous  tree  of  Porphyry,  and  the  origin  of  all 
evil  would  apparently  be  traced  to  the  effort 
to  convert  theoretical  into  practical  classifica- 
tion. 

However  this  may  be,  the  art  of  classifica- 
tion came  in  with  the  very  first  exercise  of 
human  thought.  Whether  Adam's  naming  of 
the  animals  (which  was  in  the  strict  sense 
an  act  of  practical  classification)  was  his- 
torical or  not,  it  is  almost  certain,  from  the 
nature  of  human  thought,  that  the  very  first 
act  of  man  as  distinguished  from  his  act  as 
ape  (if  he  was  one)  was  one  of  classification. 
This  act  of  classification  made  the  ape  a  man. 
Before  it  he  was  ape,  after  it  man.  Human 
thought,  as  distinguished  from  animal  thought. 


lOX 

seems  to  lie  in  just  this  power  of  binding 
things  together  in  a  group  according  to  their 
likeness  and  unlikeness  and  keeping  clearly 
discriminated  on  these  lines. 

If  by  history,  however,  we  mean  what  is 
alone  history  in  the  modern  sense  —  a  genetic 
relationship  in  which  the  influence  of  former 
on  later  systems  can  be  traced  —  then  the  his- 
tory of  theoretical  classification  only  begins 
with  Aristotle  or  perhaps  Plato,  but  from  this 
point  on  may  be  traced  with  some  definiteness. 

B.C.  428-347.    System  of  Plato. 

Plato.  Republic  bks.  3  and  7. 
Cicero.  Academicorum  lib.  i,  5,  ed.  Mul- 
len Lips.,  1889,  p.  10  ("i,  Life  and  morals, 
2,  Nature  and  3,  Discussion.")  Sextus  Em- 
piricus.  Adv.  Math,  i,  7,  15  ed.  Bekker 
(Berl.,  1842,  193-4) 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  405-9;  Shields, 
Philos.  Ult.  2  (1889)  55. 
Flint  rejects  the  division  usually  attributed 
to  Plato  of  "dialectics,  physics  and  ethics" 
and  finds  the  only  authority  for  it  in  the  tes- 
timony of  Sextus  Empiricus  who  says  (p. 
193)  that  Plato  was  probably  the  father  of 
those  who  divide  into  Physics,  ethics  and 
logic  "since  he  discoursed  concerning  many 
physical  and  ethical  and  not  a  few  logical 


t02 

subjects."  Flint  overlooks  the  fact  that  Ci- 
cero recognizes  almost  precisely  these  di- 
visions, but  may  nevertheless  well  be  right  in 
thinking  that  Plato  did  not  use  them  since 
Diogenes  Laertius  says  that  Zeno  was  the 
first  to  use  them.  Flint  gives  a  survey  of 
Plato's  "systematic  distributions  of  knowl 
edge"  which  abridged  runs  as  follows :  Visi- 
ble world  including  things  and  images  of 
things,  intelligible  world  including  conceptions 
(Arithmetic,  Geometry,  Astronomy,  Harmon- 
ics, Ideas,  dialectic.)  It  might  be  quite  as 
just  to  represent  this  system,  as  g^iven  in  the 
Plato  Republic  Books.  3  and  7  as  follows: 
Useful  arts,  Music,  Gymnastics,  Mathematics, 
Dialectics. 

B.C.  384-322.    System  of  Aristotle. 

Aristotle.  Metaphysics  5.1.2;  5.1.4;  7  (8).i; 
10.7.2;  10.7.4.  Ethics  6.3-8.  Politics  5  (or 
8)  3  (or  2.3.) 

Cave.     Introduction  p.  70 ;  Flint,  in :  Presb. 

R.   6   (1885)    409-13;   Shields,   Philosophia 

Ultima  2  (1889)  55-56  (outline.) 

Aristotle   divides    [Met.    10.7.2   ed.    Christ 

Lips.   1895,  p.  232   (1064  a  16-17)   also  5.12 

ed.  Christ,  p.  125  (1025  b  25)]  into  practical 

productive    (poietic)    and   theoretical.      The 

theoretical    or   speculative   agfain    he   divides 

[Met.  5. 1.4  and  10.7.4.  (ed.  Christ  1026  a  18- 


103 

19,"  1064  b  2)]  into  Mathematics,  Physics 
(or  Natural  Philosophy)  and  Theology  (or 
Metaphysics.) 

If  one  may,  as  has  been  done,  classify  the 
five    intellectual    virtues    (as    Ethics    6.3-8) 
as  Theoretic  =  Wisdom  =  Science  and  intui- 
tion, Practical  =  Prudence  and  Productive  = 
Art  we  have  the  following  outline  of  Aris- 
totle's system. 
Practical  or  Ethics: 
Economics. 
Politics. 
Law. 

Politics  proper. 
Productive  or  Creative  Art. 
Theoretical : 
Mathematics. 
Physics. 

Theology  (or  Metaphysics.) 
To  this  should  be  added  the  fact  that  in 
his  Politics  (S  or  8.3  ed.  Christ,  p.  166)  treat- 
ing of  the  teaching  of  children,  Aristotle 
gives  the  curriculum  as  Grammar,  gymnastics, 
music  and  "according  to  some"  "graphics." 

B.C.  366-264.    SysteiH  of  Zeno. 

Zeno  of  CtTiuM.    On  Reason. 
Diogenes   Laertius.    De  vitis  philos.   7 '^33. 
(Tauchnitz,  Lips.,  1833)  18-19. 


104 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R,6  (1855)  413-15;  Shields, 

Philos.  Ult.  2  (1889)  56. 

Logic,  Physics  (Natural  philosophy)  Eth- 
ics. Zeno  was  the  first  to  make  this  division, 
according  to  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Chrysippus,  Apollodorus,  Syllus  En- 
dronius,  Diogenes  the  Babylonian,  Posidorus, 
although  some,  with  Diogenes  of  Ptolemais, 
put  Ethics  first,  with  Apollodorus  put  Ethics 
second  or  with  Panaetius  and  Posidonius  be- 
gin with  Natural  philosophy.  To  this  list  the 
name  of  Philo  at  least  should  be  added  among 
those  who  put  Ethics  first,  and  Plutarch  with 
those  who  arrange  as  Physics,  Ethics,  Logic. 

B.C.  347-339.    System  of  Speusippus. 

Diogenes  Laertius.    De  vitis  philosophorum. 

cf.   Themistii   Paraphrases  Aristotelis,  ed. 

Spengel  (Lips.  Teub.  1866)  92  1.  15. 

According  to  Diogenes  Laertius  on  the  au- 
thority of  Diodorus,  Speusippus  was  the  first 
man  to  maintain  the  connection  of  the  several 
sciences  with  one  another.  He  was  therefore 
if  this  be  true  the  father  of  scientific  classi- 
fication. His  system  was  probably  the  pre- 
vailing Dialectics,  ethics  and  physics  carried 
out  quite  minutely  into  subdivisions.  But  cf. 
Plato  Rep.  Bk.  7  on  the  "intercommunion" 
and  "Natural  relationship"  of  studies  which 


105 

dispute  this,  and  also  cf.  Aristotle  who  has 
more  claim  to  the  title  of  paternity. 

B.C  339-314.    System  of  Xenocrates. 

Sextus    Empiricus,      Adv.    math.    1.7.    147 

ed.  Bekker.    Ber.,  1842,  p.  223. 

The  sensible,  the  intellectual  and  the  con- 
jectural. 

B.C.  263.    System  of  Cleanthes. 

Diogenes  Laertius.    De  vitis  philosoph.  7.33 

(Lips.  Tauchnitz  1833)  19. 

Six  divisions :  Dialectics,  Rhetoric,  Ethics, 
Politics,  Physics,  Theology.  He  seems  to 
have  been  followed  by  Zeno  of  Tarsus  and 
others. 

B.C.  116-27.    System  of  Varro. 

LiBRi  novem  disciplinarum  cf.  Ritschl,  Fr.  De 
M.  Terentii  Varronis  disciplinarum  libris 
commentarius.  Opuscula  3  (1877)  352-402 
esp,  371. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6.(1885)  415  (The  seven 
liberal  arts,  medicine  and  architecture) ; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultimo  2  (1889)  56. 
Grammar,  Dialectics,  Rhetoric,  Geometry, 
Arithmetic,  Astrology,  Music,  Medicine,  Ar- 
chitecture. 


io6 
fc.C.  2S-A.D.  39.    System  of  Philo. 

Philo  Judeaus.  De  congressu  quaerendae 
eruditionis  gratiae.  Opera  3  (Lips.  1828) 
70-108  passim. 

The  encyclical  studies  are  hand  maids  to 
Philosophy  and  include  Grammar  (reading, 
writing,  literature  and  history).  Geometry, 
Astronomy,  Music,  Rhetoric,  Logic,  Dialectic 

23-79.    System  of  Pliny. 

C.    Plini    Secundi   Naturalis   historiae   libri 
xxxvii,  ed.  Sillig,  I   (Hamb.  1851)   i-ioo. 
Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)   191   (out- 
line.) 

Plin/s  order  follows  the  line  of:  The  Uni- 
verse (Astronomy),  The  Earth  (Geography), 
Man,  Animals,  Plants,  Agriculture  and  hor- 
ticulture. Medicine,  Metallurgy,  Art. 

3.S-95*    System  of  Quintilian. 

QuiNTiLiANus.       Inst.    11.18.1,   cd.    Bonnell 

(Lips.  1882)  98-9. 

Q.  divides  into  Theoretical,  Practical  and 
Productive  (or  poietic.) 

BEFORE  305.    System  of  Porphyry. 

PoRPHYWus.  Introduction  to  the  Categories 
of  Aristotle. 


107 

Jevons,  W.  S.  Principles  of  Science  (N.  Y., 
1875)  381-6  (tabular  outline)  ;  Bain,  Logic 
(t886)  716-7.     ("Body,  animated  body,  ani- 
mal, rational  animal,  man.") 
This  became  the  "tree"  or  "ladder"  of  Por- 
phyry or  the  "Ramean  tree"  given  with  varia- 
tions by  many  mediaeval  writers;  e.  g.,  Nice- 
phorus,  Aquinas,  Roger  Bacon,  etc. 

Roger  Bacon's  form  of  representation  of 
the  order  of  substance  may  be  taken  as  prac- 
tically identical  with  Porphyrys's  ladder  and 
is  a  most  interesting  suggestion  of  the  mod- 
em evolutionary  order.  It  may  be  represented 
as  follows: 
Substance, 
Spiritual. 
Corporal. 
Celestial. 
Terrestrial. 
Elementary. 
Mixed. 
Lifeless. 
Living. 
Vegetable. 
Animal. 
Irrational. 
Rational. 
Man. 


io6 

354-430.    System  of  Augustin. 

AuGUSTiNUS,  Aur.  De  Ordine  II  12-  ed. 
Migne.  Patrol,  lat  32  (1865)  1011-13;  also 
Retractiones,  do.  591  (Grammar,  Music, 
Dialectic,  Rhetoric,  Geometry,  Arithmetic, 
Philosophy)  ;  also  De  doct.  christ.  do.  3  '.57- 
66  ("quas  liberales  vocant.") 
Schaff,  Ph.  Theol.  propaedeutic.  N,  Y., 
1894,  p.  7;  also  Hist,  of  Church  4:611-. 

BEFORE  439.    System  of  Capella. 

Capella,  Martinus.    Satyricon  [or  De  septem 
artibus],   ed.    Kopp.    Frf.a.M.     1836.     4"; 
ed.  Eyssenhardt.    Lips.  1866.     12°. 
Lyons,  in :  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  191 ;  Flint,  in : 
Presb.   R.   6    (1885)    41 5 ;    Shields,    Phil- 
osophia    Ultima   2    (1889)    56-7;     Teuffel, 
Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  2  (Lond.,  1892)  446-9. 
Grammar,    Dialectic,    Rhetoric,    Geometry, 
Arithmetic,  Astronomy,  Music.    He  also  men- 
tions, but  counts  out  from  among  the  liberal 
arts  "medicine  and  architectonics." 

ABOUT  550.    System  of  Cassiodorus. 

Cassiodorus.    De  artibus  et  disciplinis  liber- 
alium  litterarum.    In:  Opera  ed.  Migne  2 
(1865)  1150-1218. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  415-6  (Trivi- 


109 

um  and  quadrivium,  known  also  as  Logica 
and  Mathematica  and  correspond  to  Logic 
and  Physics  of  the  Stoics)  ;  Shields,  Philos. 
Ult.  2  (1889)  57. 
Arts: 

Grammar. 

Rhetoric. 

Dialectics. 
Mathematics : 

Arithmetic. 

Music. 

Geometry, 

Astronomy. 
This  is  the  famous  "trivium"  and  "quad- 
rivium" of  Mediaeval  education. 

636.    Sysiem  of  Isidore  of  Seville. 

IsnwRUS  HisPALENSis.  Origines  sive  Etymol. 
Lib.  I.  Cap.  II.,  ed.  Migne,  Patrol,  lat.  82 
(1878)  74- 

Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  191  (out- 
line); Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  416 
(Men.  same  as  Cassiodorus) ;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  57  (mention.) 
"Seven  liberal  arts."  i,  Grammar;  2,  Rhe- 
toric; 3,  Dialectic;  4,  Arithmetic;  5,  Music; 
6,  Geometry;  7,  Astronomy. 


no 
673-735-    System  of  Bede. 

Bede.    Opera  didascalia.    Ed.  Migne,  Patrol. 

lat.  9(5  (1862)  123-606. 

Flint,  in:   Presb.   R.  6   (1885)   416    (Men. 

same  as  Cassiodorus)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia 

Ultima  2  (1889)  57  (mention.) 

Besides  works  on  orthography,  metrics,  etc., 
Bede's  work  On  the  nature  of  things  treats  of 
the  formation  of  the  world  and  its  nature,  of 
the  elements  and  then  of  what  may  be  called 
astronomy,  meteorology,  oceanology,  geology, 
geography  and  in  this  order.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  various  works  on  times  and  seasons, 
including  what  may  be  called  a  history  of  the 
world  in  six  "ages." 

736-804.    System  of  Alcuin. 

Alcuinus.      De    grammatica.      Ed.    Migne 
Patrol,  lat.  loi  (1863)  854. 
Flint,  in:   Presb.   R.  6   (1885)   416    (Men 
same  as   Cassiodorus) ;    Shields,    Philoso- 
phia Ultima  2  ( 1889)  57. 
Grammar,  Rhetoric  (dialectic).  Arithmetic, 

Geometry,  Music,  Astrology, 

ABOUT  844.    System  of  Hrabanus  Maurus. 

Hraeanus  Maurus.  De  universo.  Ed  Migne 
Patrol,  lat.  11 1  (1864)  1-614. 


Ill 

Hrabanus  Maurus.  De  clericorum  inst. 
Liber  III.,  ed.  Migne  Patrol,  lat.  107  (1864) 
378-405. 

(Science  of  Holy  Scripture;  Seven  Liberal 
arts  (form  of  Cassiodorus)  Philosophy.) 
Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  191-2, 
God,  Man,  The  animals  [The  heavens],  The 
seasons,  The  waters,  The  earth.  Public  build- 
ings, Philosophy,  Language,  Minerals,  Weights 
and   measures.  Agriculture,   War   and   naval 
arts.  Sports,  Fine  arts  and  costume,  Domestic 
economy. 

1071-8.    System  of  Psellus. 

PsELLUs,   Michael   Constantine.      Didascalia. 

In:  Fabricius.    Bibl.  graeca  5  (1712)  app.  2 

pp.  69-186. 

Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  192. 

P's  order  may  roughly  be  described  as  God ; 
The  mind  and  soul,  The  body,  The  virtues, 
The  elements.  Astronomy,  Meteorology,  The 
earth.  The  waters,  Agriculture. 

FL.  1 120.    System  of  Hugo  de  S.  Victore. 

Hugo  de  S.  Victore.    Eruditionis  didascalicae 
Ed.  Migne  Patrol,  lat.  176  (1880)  739-838 
especially  751. 
Theoretical  or  speculative: 
Theology. 


112 

Mathematics. 
Arithmetic. 
Music. 
Geometry. 
Astronomy. 
Physics. 
Practical  or  Ethics. 
Mechanical. 
Logical. 
Subdivisions  are  worth  studying. 

ABOUT  1200-1300.    Scholastic  System. 

Shields.      Philosophia  Ultima  2   (1889)    58 

(outline.) 

The  system  of  Albertus  Magnus  (ab.  1200- 
1280)  Duns  Scotus  (ab.  1265-1308)  and 
Thomas  Aquinas  (ab.  1225-1274)  is  synthet- 
ized  by  Shields  as:  Theology,  Ethics,  Meta- 
physics, Mathematics,  Physics;  Quadrivium, 
Music,  Astronomy,  Arithmetic,  Geometry; 
Trivium,  Rhetoric,  Dialectic,  Grammar. 

1221-1274.    System  of  St.  Bonaventure. 

BoNAVENTURA,  S.  Joh.  De  reductione  artium 
ad  theologiam,  in:  Opera,  v.  6  (Romae 
1596)  1-4. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  416-7  {Natural: 
Physics,  Mathematics,  Metaphysics;  Ra- 
tional: Grammar,  Logic,  Rhetoric;  Moral: 


"3 

Ethics,     Economics,     Politics.)       Shields, 
Philos.  Uit.  2  (1889)  57. 

1240.    System  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais. 

ViNCENTius  Bellovacensis.  Spcculum  quad  - 
ruplex.  Argent  1473-6  and  often. 
Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  192  (out- 
line); Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  4i7; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  58 
(mention.) 
Naturale,  Doctrinale,  Historiale,  Morale. 

1260-1267.    System  of  Latini. 

Latini,  Brunetto.    Li  livres  du  Tresor.    Par- 
is, 1863.    4°. 
Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  192-3. 

1266.    System  of  Roger  Bacon. 

Bacon,    Roger.      Opus    majus,    ed.    J.    H. 
Bridges.    Oxf.,  1897-    8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  417;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  58  (mention.) 
The  order  of  the  Opus  Majus  compared 
with  the  plan  of  the  Scriptum  principale  seems 
to    yield    the    following    order:     Philology, 
Mathematics,  Physics  (incl.  Optics,  Astrono- 
my, Barology,  Alchemy,  Agriculture,  Medir 
cine,  Experimental  science).  Ethics  (incl.  Re- 

8 


114 

lations  to  God,  Civic  morality,  Personal  mor- 
ality, the  Christian  religion.) 

Elsewhere  B.  gives  an  ingenious  graphic 
representation  of  what  is  substantially  Por- 
phyry's ladder. 

1297.    System  of  Dante. 

Dante  Alighieri.  II  Convito  2.14-16.  Opere 
minori,  ed.  Fraticelli.  v.  3  (Fir.,  1893) 
151-67. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  417  (detailed 
ace.)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889) 

57. 

1360.    System  of  Glanville. 

Glanvilla,  Bartholomeus  de.  De  proprieta- 
tibus  rerum.  Printed  [Lugd.,  1480]  and 
often. 

Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8   (1878)    193   (out- 
line.) 

1362.    System  of  Berchorius. 

Berchorius,  Petrus.  Opera  omnia.  Mogunt, 
1609.    3  V.    f°,  etc. 

Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)   193  ("plan 
of  Glanville.") 

1491.    System  of  Poliziano. 

PoLiziANO,  Angel o.  Panepistemon.  Florent., 
1491.    4°. 


"5 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  .(1885)  417-8  (de- 
tailed ace.)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima 
2  (1889)   58  (mention.) 

1496.    System  of  Reisch. 

Reisch^     Gregor.       Margarita    philosophica. 
Heidelberg,  1496,  etc. 
Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  193. 

1501.    System  of  Valla. 

Valla,  Georgius.      (Placentinus)    De  expe- 
tendis  et  fugiendis  rebus.     Venetiis,   1501. 

2v.  r. 

Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  193  (out- 
line.) 

1506.    System  of  Maffei. 

Maffei,  Raphael.      (Volaterranus)  Commen- 
tarii  Urbani.    Roma,  1506.     f°. 
Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit,  8   (1878)    193   (out- 
line.) 

1540.    System  of  Vane  gas. 

Vanegas,  Alexio.     Primera  parte  de  las  dif- 
ferencias  de  libros  que  ay  en  el  universe. 
.  .  .  Valladolid,  1583.    8°. 
Petzholdt    (1866)    22    (full   title   and   out- 
line.) 

1548.    System  of  Gesner. 

GissNER,   Conrad.      Pandectarum    sive  parti- 
tionum    universalium    libri    xxi.       Tiguri, 


ii6 

1548  [Bibl.  Univ.  II.  i.-xix.]  Partitiones 
Theol.  1549  [Bibl.  Univ.  III.  xxi.] 
Edwards  2  (1859)  762-3,  Table  I.  no.  I. 
(outline)  ;  Hottinger  (1664)  82-4  (outline)  ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  22  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  258  (outline)  ;  Rouveyre 
2  (1882)  11-13;  Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6 
(1885)  435  (mention);  Ottino  (1892)  121; 
Maire  (1896)  183  (title);  Brown  (1898) 
40  (outline.) 

1553-    System  of  Nizolio. 

NizoLio.  Mario.  De  veris  principiis  et  vera 
ratione  philosophandi  contra  pseudophiloso- 
phos. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  418  ("some 
originality"  "extreme  nominalist."  Detailed 
ace.)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889) 
58  (mention.) 

BEFORE  1560.    System  of  Taschkoprisade. 

Haji  Khalfa.  Lexicon  bibliog.  I.  (1835) 
31-41  (cf.  previous  pages  for  H.  K.'s  dis- 
cussion of  sub.)  ;  Petzholdt  (1866)  21-  (full 
title  and  outline.) 

1587.    System  of  de  Savigny. 

Savigny,  Christoflle  de.     Tableau  .  .  .  de  tous 
les  arts.     Paris,  1619.    37  p.     f, 
Edwards  2   (1859)   764-5   (outline);  Petz- 


117 

holdt  (1866)  23  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  258  (full  title)  ;  Maire  (1896) 
183  (3  lines.) 

1605.    System  of  Bacon. 

Bacon,  Francis.  Partitio  Universalis  doc- 
trinae  humanae,  De  dign.  et  aug.  Scientia- 
rum,  lib.  2,  in :  Works,  ed.  Montagu  8 
(Lond.,  1828)  87  sq. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  765-7,  Table  i  no.  2; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  23  (full  title  and  outline; 
also  mentions  15  editions)  ;  Gar  (1868)  258- 
9  (7  lines  only)  ;  Flint,  in :  Presb.  R.  6 
(188s)  421-5;  Bain,  Logic  (1886)  627-8; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  61-3 
(outline);  Cave,  Introduction  (1896)  71-2; 
The  Library  9  (1897)  203  (outline)  ;  Brown 
(1898)  29  (outline.) 

Outline. 
[L]  History  (Memory)  : 
Natural  History. 
Generations    (Physics,   Physical 

Geography,  Species,  etc.). 
Praetergenerations   (Monsters)  : 
Arts. 
Civil  History: 
Ecclesiastical. 
Literary. 
Civil  history  proper. 


ii8 

[II.]  Poetry  (Imagination)  : 
Narrative. 
Dramatic. 
Parabolical. 
[III.]  Science  or  Philosophy  (Reason) : 
Philosophy. 
Divine    Philosophy    (  =  Natural 

Theology.) 
Natural  Philosophy. 
Speculative. 
Physic. 
Metaphysic. 
Operative. 
Mechanic. 
Magic. 
Human  Philosophy  (=  Anthro- 
pology.) 
Philosophy  of  Humanity. 
Human  physiologfy  (or  Phy- 
sical anthropology.) 
Human  psychology. 
Logic. 
Ethics. 
Civil    philosophy    ( =  modern 
Sociology.) 

Society  (Social  relations.) 
Commerce  (Economics.) 
Government  (Politics.) 
Theology  (Revealed  religion.) 


119 

i6i5-    System  of  Zara. 

Zara,  Antonio.     Anatomia  ingeniorum  et  sci- 
entiarum.    Venetiis,  1615.    4°. 
Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8   (1878)    193   (out- 
line.) 

1620.    System  of  Alsted. 

Alsted,  Johann  Heinrich.  Encyclopaedia  sep- 
tem  tomis  distincta.  Herbon.  Nassov.,  1630. 

7  V.    r. 

Lyons,  in:  Enc.  Brit.  8  (1878)  193-4   (out 
line);  Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  .(1885)   425-6 
("rigidly  methodical"  detailed  ace.) 

1638.    System  of  Campanella. 

Campanella,  Thomas.  Philos.  rationalis  .  .  . 
grammatica,  dialectica,  rhetorica,  poetica, 
historiographia,  etc.  Par.,  1638.  4°.  also, 
De  reformat  sci.  Ven.,  1633.  4°,  etc.,  etc. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  418-20;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  58. 

1644.    System  of  Descartes. 

Descartes,  Rene.  Les  principes  de  Id  phil- 
osophie.  Oeuvres,  ed.  Cousin.  V.  3.  Par- 
is, 1824.    8°. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  420-21  ("near- 
ly same  as  that  ...  by  Sylvain  Regis, 
Clauberg,    Geulinx — viz.  .  .  .  Logic,   Meta 


120 

physics,  Physics,  Ethics") ;  Shields,  Philo- 
sophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  71. 

1649.  System  of  Fichet. 

FiCHET^  Alexander.    Arcana  studiorum  om- 
nium  niethodus.     Lipsiae,   1710.     f°. 
Petzholdt   (1866)   25-6   (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  259- 

1650.  System  of  Hobbes. 

HoBBES,  Thomas.  Leviathan.  Lond.,  1651. 
f°.  Molesworth  3  (1839)  71-3.  "Of  the 
several  subjects  of  knowledge"  [table.] 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  428-30  ("deep- 
er and  truer  insight  .  .  .  than  Bacon."  De- 
tailed outline)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ul- 
tima 2  (1889)  68. 

1657.    System  of  Comenius. 

CoMENius,  Joh.    Am.  Opera  didactica  omnia. 
Amst.,  1657.    4  V. 

Laurie,    S     S.      John    Amos    Comenius. 
Lond.,  18S1.    8°.    2  ed.,  1884. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6   (1885)   426-7   (out- 
line) ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889) 
60  (mention,  "religious.") 

1678.    System  of  Anonymous— Flint. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  430  (outline.'^ 


121 

i68R.    System  of  Locke. 

Locke,  John.  Essay  concerning  human  un- 
derstanding. Lond.,  1741.  8°.  Bk.  4,  Ch. 
21.  "Of  the  division  of  the  sciences;"  ed. 
Fraser  2  (Oxf.,  1894)  460-3. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  28  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  260;  Flint,  in:  Presb.  R. 
6  (1885)  430-1  ["inferior  to  Bacon  and 
Hobbes"];  Brown   (1898)   30   (outline.) 

BEFORE  1699.    System  of  Wetzel. 

Weizel,  Erhard.    Idea  totius  encyclopaediae, 
etc. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  427-8. 

1725.  System  of  Vico. 

Wico,  Giambattista.      Oeuvres.      Paris,  1835 
I  p.  222,  II.  p.  22-3. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  432-3. 

1726.  System  of  Wolff. 

Wolff,  Christian.  [Commentatio  de  Deo. 
etc.,  1726?.  Cosmologia  generalis,  1731?, 
etc.] 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  433-4  (detailed 
ace.)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889) 
63. 


122 

1728.    System  of  Chambers. 

Chambers,  E.    Cyclopaedia.    Dub.,  1740.    f, 
V.  I,  p.  3-8. 

Clarke  2  (1806)  206-7  (with  folding  sheet)  ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  31  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  262  (men.) 

1748.    System  of  Girard. 

[GiRARD,  Gabr.  Abbe.]  Diderot.  Encyclo- 
pedic. V.  2  (Par.,  1751)  i°,  161-5.  (Given 
from  ms.  full  outline.) 
Peignot  2  (1802)  233-4;  Achard  2  (1806-7) 
282-6;  Edwards  2  (1859)  778-9,  Table  i,  no. 
4;  Petzholdt  (1866)  34  (full  title  and  out- 
line.) 

1750.    System  of  Sulzer. 

SuLZER,  Johann  Georg.    Kurzer  Begriflf  aller 
Wissenschaften  2  aufl.     Frf.  or  Lpz.,  1759. 
8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  6  (1885)  435  (mention.) 

1751-    System  of  d'Alemhert. 

D'Alembert.    Ouvres  i  (Par.,  1821)  99-109. 
also  in  Oeuvr.  philos.  1805 ;  also  in  Diderot 
and  D'Alembert  i   (Paris,  1751)  47-53  and 
folding  table. 
Edwards   2    (1859)    76-8,    Table    i,    no.    2 


123 

("Modification  of  Bacon,"  outline  given 
both  in  text  and  table);  Petzholdt  (1866) 
42  (full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  263; 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  425  note;  Bain, 
Logic  (N.  Y.,  1886)  628;  Shields,  Philo- 
sophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  61-2;  Brown  (ISPS') 
29  (outline.) 

1760.    System  of  De  Montlinot. 

MoNTLiNOT,  Leclerc  de.  In :  Journal  Encyclo- 
pedique,  Sept.,  1760. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  784-5  ("fantastically 
symmetrical.") 

1767.    System  of  Bielefield. 

BiELEFiELD,  Jak.  Fr.  Erste  Grundlinien  d. 
allgem.  Gelehrsamheit.  Breslau,  1767.  3 
V.    8°. 

1775-    System  of  BUsch. 

BuscH,  I.  G.  Encyklopadie  der  histor.  philos. 
u.  math,  wissenschaften.  Hamb.,  1775.  8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  435  (mention.) 

1775  (1787  ?).    System  of  Reimarus. 

Reimarus,  Herm.  Sam.C?)  Encyclopadie. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  6  (18S5)  435  (mention.) 

1778.    System  of  Schmid. 

ScHMiD,  Christian  Heinrich.  Abriss  der  gel- 
ehrsamkeit  fiir  encyclopadische  vorlesungea 


124 

Ber.,  1783.  8".  also  in  Gothaischen  maga- 
zin,  1778.    8°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  35  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  264. 

1781.    System  of  Kant. 

Kant,  Immanuel.  Critik  der  reinen  Ver- 
nunft.  Riga,  1781,  8° ;  ed.  Hartenstein. 
V.  3.  Lpz.,  1867,  8°  ;  tr.  Max  MuUer.  Lond., 
1881,  8°. 

Flint,  in:  Presb,  R.  7  (1886)  483-S  (outline 
and  crit.)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2 
(1889)  63-4. 

1782.    System  of  Klugel. 

Klugel,  Georg  Simon.   Encykl.  Uebersicht  d. 
kenntnisse    u.    Wissenschaften.      Neubran- 
denb.,  1790,  8° ;  cf.  also  his  Encyklopadie. 
Berl.,  1782-4,  8° ;  2  ed.    1792-1816. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  485  (mention.) 

1783.    System  of  Meinecke. 

Meinecke,  J.  H.  Friedrich.  Synopsis  erudi- 
tionis  universae.  Quedlinburgi,  1788,  8° ; 
also  1783-5- 

Petzholdt  (1866)  35  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  264  (men.);  Flint,  in:  Presb. 
R.  6  (1885)  435  (mention.) 


125 

1790.    System  of  Buhle. 

BuHLE,  Johann  Gottlieb.  Grundziige  einer 
allgemeinen  encyklopadie.  Lemgo,  1790,  8°. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  35-6  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  .(1868)  264  (men.);  Flint,  in: 
Presb.  R.  6  (1885)  435  (mention.) 

1790.    System  of  Roth. 

Roth,  [Jh.  Frd.?]  System  menschlicher  (?) 
Kentnisse  (??). 

Flint,  in:   Presb.   R.  7   (1886)    485    (men- 
tion.) 

1792.    System  of  Eschenburg. 

EscHENBURG,  Johann  Joachim.  Lehrbuch  der 
wissenschaftskunde ;  ed.  3  enl.  Berlin,  1809 ; 
also  1792  and  1800. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  36  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  264  (men.) 

1794.    System  of  von  Berg. 

Berg,  von.    Versuch  iiber  d.  zusammenhaug 
aller    theile    der    gelehrsamkeit.      Frankf.. 
1794,  8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  485  (mention.) 

1796.    System  of  Krug. 

Krug,  Wilhelm  Trangott.  Versuch  einer  sys- 
tematischen  enzyklopadie  der  wissenschaf- 
ten.    Lpz.  and  Jena,  \7<^-7. 


126 

Petzholdt  (1866)  37  (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  264  (men.);  Flint,  in: 
Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  485  (outline) ;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  61  (mention, 
"political.") 

1798.    System  of  Regnault-Warin  and  others. 

Regnault-Warin,  J.  B.  J.  I.  P.  and  others. 
Tableau  d  I'entendement  humain  .  .  .  In- 
troduction aux  Studes  encyclopediques. 
Paris,  1798,  8°. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  768,  Table  i,  no.  II.  3. 
(modification  of  Bacon.) 

1799.    System  of  Meusel. 

Meusel,  Johann  Georg.  Leitfaden  zur  ges- 
chichte  der  gelehrsamkeit  I.  (Lpz.,  1799) 
196-216. 

Constantine  2  (1842)  195;  Petzholdt  (1866) 
39  (full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  264 
(men.) 

1802.    System  of  Thiebaut. 

Thiebaut,  Arsenne.  Exposition  du  tableau 
philosophique  des  connaissances  humaines. 
Par.,  1802,  8°. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  248-56  (very  detailed)  ; 
Clarke  2  (1806)  198-206  (detailed)  ;  Petz- 
holdt (1866)  41  (full  title  and  outline); 
Gar  (1868)  265. 


127 

i8o2.    System  of  Butenschoen. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  212-18;  Achard  i  (1806- 
7)  246-52;  Edwards  2  (1859)  Table  i,  no.  5; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  40  (outline)  ;  Gar  (1868) 
264  (men.) 

1803.    System  of  Schelling. 

ScHELLiNG,  Friedrich  Wilh.  Jos.  v.    Vorles- 
ungen   ii.    d.    methode   d.    acad.     studium. 
Tiib.,  1803,  8°;  also  1813;  1830,  etc. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  485-6  ("in  no 
sense  a  classification  of  the  sciences.") 
System  der  gesammten  Philosophic,   1804; 
first  pub.   in:   Werke,   Stuttgart  6    (i860) 
131-6. 
This   is   a   full   detailed  tabular   statement 

much  more  to  the  point  than  that  quoted  by 

Flint  and  in  every  sense  a  classification  of  the 

sciences. 

1804.    System  of  Oken. 

Oken,  Lorenz.  Uebersicht  d.  grundrisses  d. 
systems  der  naturphilosophie.  Frkf.  a.  M., 
1804,  8°;  also  various  other  similar  works. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  486  (mention, 
"so  original  as  to  be  altogether  unintelli- 
gible.") 

1806.    System  of  Hefter. 

HefteRj  Karl  Chr.     Philosoph.  darstellung  al- 
ler  wissenschaften.    Lpz.,  1806,  8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  486  (mention.) 


128 

i8o6.    System  of  Topfer. 

ToPFER,  Henr.  Aug.     Encyklop.  generalkarte 
aller  wissenschaften.     Grimma,  1806,  f. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  486  (mention.) 

1807.    System  of  Ortloff. 

Ortloff,  Jh.  Andr.    "Systematic  distribution 
of  the  sciences"  perhaps  his :  Ueb.  geschichte 
d.  wissenschaften  u.  kiinste.    Coburg,  1807. 
8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  486  (mention.) 

1809.    System  of  Burdach. 

BuRDACH,  Karl  Fr.    Der  organismus  menschl. 
wissenschaft  u.  kunst.    Lpz.,  1809,  8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  486  (mention.) 

1809.  System  of  Kraus. 

Kraus,    Christian    Jacob.       Encyklopadische 
ansichten    einiger    zweige    der    gelehrsam- 
keit.  .  .  .  Konigsberg,    1809,   8°. 
Petzholdt   (1866)   43-4   (full  title  and  out- 
line.) 

1810.  System  of  Simon. 

Simon,   [Joh.?  Fried.?]     Tabular  survey  of 
the  sciences  (cf.  Flint.) 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  486  (mention  ) 


129 

i8io.    System  of  Schmid. 

ScHMiD,  Carl  Christian  Erhard.    Allgemeine 
encyklopadie  und  methodologie  der  wissen- 
schaften.    Jena,  1810,  4°. 
Petzholdt    (1866)    44    (full   title   and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  268. 

181 5.    System  of  Destutt  de  Tracy. 

Tracv,  Destutt  de,  A.  L.  C.    Cours  d'ldeolo- 
gie.     Paris,  1801-15,  5  v. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  490;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  63. 

1815.  System  of  Stewart. 

Stewart,  Dugald.    Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 
Supplement.     Preface  to  the  first  disserta- 
tion, V.  I  (1815)  1-17. 
Shields,  Philosophia'  Ultima  2  ( 1889)  62-3. 

18 16.  System  of  Bent  ham. 

Bentham,  Jeremy.  Chrestomathia.  London, 
1816-17,  2  pt,  8°,  Works  ed.  Bowring  8 
(Lond.,  1843)  63-128. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  791-2,  Table  i,  no.  vii. ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  46  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  268;  Flint,  in:  Presb.  R. 
7  C1866)  490-2  (outline  "reminds  .  .  .of 
.  .  .  Hobbes  .  .  .  but    less    vigor  .  .  .  and 

9 


130 

more  .  .  .  pedantry")  ;  Shields,  Philoso- 
phia  Ultima  2  (1889)  60  (mention,  "Utili- 
tarian.") 

1816.    System  of  Jdsche. 

Jaesche,  Gottlieb  Benjamin.     Einleitung  zu 
einer  architectonik  u.   systemat.   Universal 
encyklopadie    d.     wissenschaften.      Dorpat, 
1816,  4° ;  Grundlinien,  etc.,  1818,  8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  487  (mention.) 

1816.    System  of  Hasse. 

Hasse,  Fr.  Chr.  A.  Encyklopadische  tafeln. 
Lpz.,  1816-20,  12°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  46-7  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  269. 

181 7.    System  of  Coleridge. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor.  Encyclopaedia 
metropolitana ;  or.  Universal  dictionary  of 
knowledge  .  .  .  Lond.,  1817-45,  4° ;  Intro- 
duction.      (Lond.,  1845,  etc.,)  p.  x.,  also  p. 

44- 

Edwards  2  (1859)  792,  Table  i,  no. 
viii. ;  Petzholdt  (1866)  47  (full  title  and 
outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  268;  Flint,  in:  Presb. 
R.  7  (1886)  490-2  ("Coleridge  .  .  .  com- 
plained that  under  editorial  revision  his 
work  was  ...  'so  bedeviled  that  I  am 
ashamed  to  own  it'")  ;  Bain,  Logic  (N.  Y., 
1886)  628-9;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2 


131 

(1889)  64-5  (outline);  Cave,  Introduction 
(1896)  72;  The  Library  9  (1897)  204; 
Brown  (1898)  31  .(outline.) 

Outline. 
I.  Div.  Pure  Sciences : 

[i.]  Formal  Sciences. 
Grammar. 
Logic,  Rhetoric. 
Mathematics. 
Metaphysics. 
[2.]  Real  Sciences: 
Morals. 
Law. 

Theology.  -  s-bI 

n.  Div.  Mixed  and  Applied  Sciences: 
[i.]  Mixed. 

Mechanics.  •       '    ' 

Hydrostatics. 
Pneumatics. 
Optics. 
Astronomy. 
[2.  J  Applied. 

I.  Experimental  Philosophy. 
IL  Fine  Arts, 
in.  Useful  Arts. 
IV.  Natural  History. 
V.  Application  of  Natural  History. 

III.  Div.  Biographical  and  Historical. 

IV.  Div.  Miscellaneous   and  Lexicographic 

cal. 


132 

i8i7.    System  of  Hegel. 

Hegel,  Geo.  W.  F.  Encyklopadie  d.  philos. 
wissenschaften.  Ed.  Henning  6  (Berl., 
1843)  27-8  et  passim. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  487-90  ("what- 
ever be  the  faults  ...  for  the  first  time 
.  .  .  something  like  what  a  science  of  the 
sciences  ought  to  be")  ;  Shields,  Philosophia 
Ultima  2  (1889)  66-7. 

1817.    System  of  JanellL 

Janelli,  Cataldo.  Cenni  sulla  natura  e  ne- 
cessita  della  scienza  delle  cose  e  della  storie 
umane,  1817. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  493  (outline, 
"no  intrinsic  merit.") 

1819.    System  of  Gruber. 

Gruber,  J.  G.  Ueber  encyclopadisches  stu- 
dium.  In:  Ersch  u.  Gruber;  Encyclop.  T, 
2  (Lpz.,  1819)  Hi.  p. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  48  (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  269;  Boccardo.  Nuova 
enc.  ital.  20  (1886)  262-4  (very  full  out- 
line.) 

18 19.    System  of  Rudiger. 

RuDiGER,  C.  A.    Uebersicht  der  wissenschaft- 
lichen  erkenntniss.     Freyberg,  1819. 
Petzholdt   (1866)   48-9   (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  269. 


133 
i8i9.    System  of  Schopenhauer. 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur.  Die  welt  als  wille 
und  vorstellung.  Lpz.,  1819,  8° ;  2  ed.,  1844, 
8\ 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  509-10  (de- 
tailed outline,  "deserves  to  be  noted  only 
as  an  ingenious  curiosity")  ;  Shields,  Philo- 
sophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  64. 

1820.    System  of  Longo. 

LoNGO,  Agatino  [various  works  mentioned  in 
appendix    of    Di    Giovanni's    Storia    della 
P'ilosofia  in  Sicilia  ace.  to  Flint.] 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  493  (mention.) 

1822.    System  of  Comte. 

CoMTE,  Aguste.  Systeme  de  philosophie  posi- 
tive I  (1830)  57-115;  also  Positive  polity, 
Eng.  tr.  I  (1854)  355-68;  iv.  161-8,  549, 
597,  etc. 

Bain,  Logic  (N.  Y.,  1886)  629-30;  Flint,  in: 
Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  496-501  ("He  claimed 
but  had  no  right  whatever  to  claim  that  he 
originated  the  classification  which  he  adopt- 
ed. If  that  classification  possess  any  merits 
they  must  be  ascribed  to  Dr.  Burdin  who 
conceived  it  and  to  Saint  Simon  who  first 
received  and  published  it.") 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  72-6 
(outline  and  excellent  resume  of  criticisms 


134 
by     Whewell,     Huxley,     Spencer,     Fiskc, 
Lewes,  Bain,  Littre,  Mill)  ;  Cave,  Introduc- 
tion (1896)  72-5. 

Form  of  1830. 

Mathematics. 
Astronomy. 
Physics. 
Chemistry. 
Physiology. 
Social  Physics. 
Form  of  1851. 

Natural  Philosophy. 
Cosmology. 
Mathematics. 
Astronomy. 
Physics. 
Chemistry. 
Biology. 
Social  Philosophy. 
This  much  abused  system  to  which  its  ene- 
mies grudge  any  pretention  to  originality  or 
merit  has  nevertheless  been  almost  the  chief 
stimulus  to  progress  in  classification  during 
this  century. 

1827.    System  of  Arnott. 

Arnott,  Neil.     Elements  of  Physics.    Lond., 
1827. 
Bain,  Logic  (N.  Y.,  1886)  629. 


135 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  495-6  ("all 
phenomena  physical,  chemical,  vital,  men- 
tal") ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889) 

69. 

1828.  System  of  Ferrarese. 

Ferrarese,  Luigi.    Saggio  di  una  nuova  clas- 
sificazione  della  scienze. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  493-4;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2   (1889)   60-61    (men- 
tion, "ethical.") 

1828.    System  of  Ventura. 

Ventura,  Giovachino.       De  methodo  philo- 
sophandi.     Rome. 

Flint,  m:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  493;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  61  (mention, 
"ecclesiastical.") 

1829.  System  of  Pamphilis. 

Pamphilis,  Giacinto  de.      Geneografia  dello 
scibile.     2  ed.     1869. 

cf.  Longo.  Osservazione  sulla  G.  del  sig. 
Pamphilis,  in:  Giorn.  di  sci.  per  la  Sic.  v. 

35- 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  494-5;  Shields, 

Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  61   (mention, 

"aesthetical.") 

1830.    System  of  Rosmini. 

RosMiNi,  Antonio.     Sull'  origine  delle '  idee 
tr.    Lend.,  v.  3  (1884)  351-65.    On  the  first 


136 

division  of  the  sciences  [Pure  (or  formal) 

Logic,  Applied.] 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  504-6;  Shields, 

Philosophia    Ultima    2    (1889)     (outline); 

Davidson,    Thomas,    Philos.    syst.    of    R. 

(Lond.,  1882)  introd.  p.  civ.   [gives  tabular 

outline.] 

1834.    System  of  Amphe. 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie.  Essai  sur  la  philoso- 
phic des  sciences,  1834-43,  8°. 
Lubbock  (1838)  app.  p.  ix. ;  Edwards  2 
(1859)  797-8,  Table  i,  no.  ix.;  Petzholdt 
(1866)  SI  (full  title  and  outline);  (jar 
(1868)  271;  Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886) 
501-4;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889) 
71-2  (outline.) 

1836-7.    System  of  Hamilton. 

Hamilton,  Sir  Wiliam.     Lectures  on  meta- 
physics, I  vii.  I   (Edin.,  1875)   111-120. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  516-8;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  69. 

1838.    System  of  Lubbock. 

Lubbock,  J.  W.    Remarks  on  the  classifica- 
tion  of   the   different   branches   of  human 
knowledge.    Lond.,  1838,  8". 
Petzholdt    (1866)    54    (full  title  and  out- 


137 

line);  Gar  (1868)  272;  Flint,  in:  Presb.  R. 
7  (1886)  509  ("hardly  any  value,"  out- 
line.) 

1839.    System  of  Lowe. 

Lowe,  Maximilian  Leopold.  Grundriss  der 
allgemeinen  hodegetik  .  .  .  Dresden,  1839, 
8°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  54  (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  272. 

1840.    System  of  Whewell. 

Whewell,  William.  Philosophy  of  the  in- 
ductive sciences.  Lond.,  1840,  2  v.,  8° ; 
3d  ed.  greatly  altered,  1858,  2  v.,  8° ;  Novum 
organon  renovatum,  B  2,  ch.  9. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  506-9  (de- 
tailed outline)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ulti- 
ma 2  (1889)  65-6  (outline.) 

1840.    System  of  Gioberti. 

GioBERTi,  Vincenzo.  Introduzione  alio  studio 
della  filosofia.  Brusselle,  1840,  8°,  v.  3,  c.  5. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  506;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  67. 

1842.    System  of  Kirchner. 

KiRCHNER,  C.  Hodegetik;  oder,  Wegweiser 
zur  universitat  fiir  studierende.  .  .  .  Lpz., 
1852,  8°. 


138 

Petzholdt  (1866)  56-7  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  273. 

1843.    System  of  Proudhon. 

Proudhon,  Pierre  Joseph.     De  la  creation  de 
I'ordre   dans   I'humanite.      Ed.    2.       Paris, 
1849,  12°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  504. 

1844.    System  of  Arnold. 

Arnold,  August.     Wissenschaftskunde ;  oder, 
Encyclopadie  und  methodologie  der  wissen- 
schafteii.     Konigsberg,  i.  d.  N.  1844,  8°. 
Petzholdt    (1866)    57    (full   title   and   out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  273. 

1844.    System  of  Voigt. 

VoiGT,  Bernh.  Fr.    Wissenschafts-uebersicht. 
Weimar,  1844,  4°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  57  (full  title  and  out- 
line.) 

1846.    System  of  Lindsay. 

Lindsay,  A.  W.  C     Progression  by  antagon- 
ism.    Lond.,  1846,  8°. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  804-5,  Table  i,  no.  x.; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  57-8  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  273-4  (outline);  Flint, 
in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  509;  Shields,  Philo- 
sophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  63  (mention)  ; 
Brown  (1898)  31  (outline.) 


139 
i847-    System  of  Albert. 

Albert^  M.  J.  F.  M.  Recherches  sur  les 
principes  fondamentaux  de  la  Classification 
Bibliographique.  Paris,  1847,  8°. 
Edwards  2  (1859)  798-800,  Table  i,  no.  xii. ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  57-8  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  274  (outline.) 

1847.    System  of  Richter. 

RiCHTER,  Franz  J.  Wissenschaftskunde.  Wien, 
1847,  12°. 

Petzholdt    (1866)    59    (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  274  (outline.) 

1847.    System  of  Ramsay. 

Ramsay,  Sir  George.    A  classification  of  the 
sciences  in  six  tables.    Lond.,  1847,  4°. 
Flint,  in:   Presb.   R.  7   (1886)   509   ("alto- 
gether of  an  external  and  unphilosophical 
kind.") 

1850.     System  of  Dove. 

DoA'E.  Patrick  Edward.       Theory  of  human 
progression.     Lond.,  1850,  8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)   51Q-14  ("an 
order    of    ever    increasing    complexity") ; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  69. 


140 
185 1.    System  of  Cournot. 

CouRNOT,  Ant.  Augustin.  Essai  sur  les  fon- 
dements  de  nos  connaissances.  Paris,  1851,. 
8°,  V.  2,  ch.  20-22. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  514-15; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  72. 

1856.    System  of  Wilson. 

Wilson,  Dr.  W.  D.  Treatise  on  Logic.  1856, 
341-46. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  808-10,  Table  i,  no.  xiii. ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  62  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  278;  Flint,  in:  Presb.  R. 
7  (1886)  515-6  (outline)  ;  Shields,  Philo- 
sophia Ultima  2  (1889)  61  (mention, 
"aesthetical")  ;  Brown  (1898)  31  (outline.) 

1856.    System  of  Helfferich. 

Helfferich,  Adolf.     Organismus  der  wissen- 
schaft.    Lpz.,  1856,  8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  516  (mention, 
"haiy  and  confused.") 

1858.    System  of  Hill. 

Hill,  Pres't  Thomas.  Liberal  education. 
Camb.,  Mass.,  1858. 

Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  61 
(mention,  "pedagogical.") 


141 

i8s9-    System  of  Renouvier. 

Renouvier,   Charles.    Traite   de  psychologic 
rationnelle  ch.  iS,  in  his :   Essais  de  critique 
generale  (Paris,  1854-64,  8°.) 
Flint,    in:    Fresh.    R.    7     (1886)     518-20; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  ;8. 

1859.    Svstetn  of  Schmitz. 

ScHMiTZj  Bernh.  Encyclopadie  des  philo- 
logischen  studiums  der  neueren  sprachen. 
Greifswald,  1859,  8°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  64  (full  title  and  outline)  : 
Gar  (1868)  279. 

1861.    System  of  Predari. 

Predari,  Francesco.     Enciclopedia  nazionale 
...  I   (Milano,  1861)   1-96. 
Petzhold  (1866)  64  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  279. 

1863.    System  of  Di  Giovanni. 

Di  Giovanni,  Vine.  Principii  di  filosofia 
prima,    v.  i,  lez.  3. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  520  (outline)  ; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  ^7 
(mention.) 

1863.    System  of  Peccenini. 

Peccenini,  Melchiore.     Nuovo  albero    enci- 
clopedico.    Napoli,  1863. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1S86)  520;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  63. 


142 

1864.    System  of  Spencer. 

Spencer,  Herbert.     The  classification  of  the 
sciences.    Lond.,  1864,  8° 
Compare  also  the  ed.  in  essays  2   (N.  Y., 
1899)    74-117,   esp.  p.   78   and  the   folding 
tables. 

Bain,  Logic  (N.  Y.,  1886)  630-9. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  521-6;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  76  (outline)  ; 
Cave,  Introduction  (1896)  75-6  (Fiske's 
form) ;  Pearson,  Grammar  of  science 
(1900)  510-13. 

Outline. 

Abstract  Science. 

Logic  and 

Mathematics. 
Abstract-Concrete  Science. 

Mechanics, 

Physics. 
Concrete  Science. 

Astronomy, 

Geology,  Biology, 

Psychology, 

Sociology,  etc. 

Whatever  may  be  the  judgment  as  to  its 
finality,  this  system  is  probably  the  most  im- 
portant modern  system  both  as  regards  its 
nature  and  influence.  It  was  first  published 
as  a  sort  of  polemic  against  the  system  of 


143 

Comte.  In  the  above  table  the  three  divisions 
are  not  exactly  correlative,  but  the  abstract- 
concrete  and  concrete  form  a  group  over 
against  the  abstract.  The  sub-classes,  too, 
are  by  no  means  correlative  as  they  appear  in 
this.  It  is  impossible  to  give  anything  like  r. 
complete  view  of  the  system  without  repro- 
ducing the  elaborate  folding  tables. 

1868.  System  of  Zeller. 

Zeller,  Ed.  Ueber  die  aufgabe  der  Philo- 
sophic und  ihre  stellung  zu  den  ubrigen 
wissenschaften,  Heidelb.,  1868.  Also  in : 
Vortrage  2  Samml.,  1877. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  526  ("touches 
on  .  .  .  but  does  not  directly  treat.") 

1869.  System  of  Harms. 

Harms,    F.      Philosophische    einleitung,    in: 
Karsten,     Gustav.       Allgemeine     Encyklo- 
paedie   der   Physik.    v.    i,   Lpz.,    1869,   8°. 
.(only  physical  sciences.) 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  526-7. 

1870.     System  of  Bain. 

Bain,  Alexander.  Logic,  deductive  and  in- 
ductive. N.  Y.,  Appleton,  1886,  12°,  pp. 
25-30. 

Flint,  in:   Presb.   R.   7    (1886)    527   ("best 
part  of  it  derived  from  Comte.    Were  it  not 


144 

for  .  .  .  practical  sciences  .  .  .  would  .  .  . 
be  an  improvement  on  Comte's  and  much 
superior  to  Spencer's.")     Bain  divides  into 
abstract,  concrete  and  practical. 

1870.    System  of  Cantoni. 

Cantoni,  Carlo.     Corso  elementare  di  Filo- 
sofia  I.    Milano,  1870,  16°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  527-8;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  69-70. 

1870.    System  of  Valdarini. 

Valdarini.  Principio  intendimento  e  storia 
della  classificazione  della  umane  conos- 
cenze  secondo  Francesco  Bacon.  Firenze, 
1870,  16°.  2d  ed.,  1880. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  528  ("gives 
.  .  .  ace.  of  classifications  of  science") ; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  63 
(mention.) 

1873.    System  of  Ribot. 

RiBOT,  Th.    Heredity.    N.  Y.,  1875,  12°,  p.  193. 
Mathematical,   physical,   biological,    mora!, 
and  social  sciences. 

1874.    System  of  Peyretti. 

Peyretti,  G.  B.    Instituzioni  'li  filosofia  teo- 
retica  I.    Torino,  1874.  8°. 


145 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  528  (outline, 
etc.)  ;  Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889) 
(yj  (mention.) 

1875.  System  of  Fiske. 

FiSKE,  John.     Organizatio.a  of  the  sciences. 

In  his :  "Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy,"  i 

(Bost.,  1875)  188-233. 

An   extremely   lucid   presentation    of    the 
Spencerian  system. 

1875.    System  of  Labanca. 

Labanca^  Baldassare.     Dialettica.      Firenze, 
1874,  8°,  V.  2,  lib.  IV.,  c.  I. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  528-9;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  ( i^)  70. 

1876.  System  of  Conti. 

CoNTi,  Aug.  II  vero  nell'  ordine.  Firenze, 
1876,  2  v.,  8°. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  529-30; 
Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  70 
(mention.) 

1877.    System  of  Erdmann. 

Erdmann,  Benno.  Gliederung  der  wissen- 
schaften,  in:  Vierteljahrsschr.  f.  wiss. 
Philos.  2  (1877.) 


146 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7.(1886)  530-31 ;  Shields. 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  70. 

1879.    System  of  Corleo. 

CoRLEO,  Simone.     Sistema  della  filosofia  Uni- 
versale.   Roma,  1879,  8°. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  531;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  70  (mention.) 

1882.    System  of  Shields. 

Shields,    Charles    W.      The    order    of  the 
sciences.    N.  Y.,  1882,  12°.    Also  his  Philo  • 
Sophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  79-112. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  532-4. 

1882.    System  of  Bourdeau. 

BouRDEAu,  M.  L.    Theorie  des  sciences.  Paris, 
1882,  2  v.,  8°. 

Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  531-2;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  78. 

1884.    System  of  Stanley. 

Stanley,  H.  M.    On  the  classification  of  the 
sciences.    In:  Mind  9  (1884)  265-74. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  534-S;  Shields, 
Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  78-9. 
Chemistry,  Molecular  Physics,  Molar  Phys- 
ics, Biology,  Psychology,  Sociology,  Theology. 


147 
1884.    System  of  Thompson. 

Thompson,  Daniel  Greenleaf.    System  of  Psy- 
chology, V.  I.     (Lond.,  1884)  76-7. 
Flint,  in:  Presb.  R.  7  (1886)  535-6. 

1889.    System  of  Wundt. 

WuNDT,  Wilhelm.    Ueber  die  Einteilung  der 
wissenschaften,  in:  Philos.  studien  5  (1889) 
1-55. 
Outline. 

[I.]  Individual  Sciences. 

A.  Formal  or  Mathematical  sciences. 

B.  Material  sciences.  ■ 

1.  Natural  sciences.  ^ 

2.  Intellectual    (spiritual?)    sciences 

(incl.    Psychology,    Philology, 
Economics,  History,  etc.) 
[II.]  Philosophy. 

1.  Doctrine  of  knowledge. 

2.  Doctrine    of    fundamentals     ("prin- 

cipien"?) 
The  above  outline  is  only  an  abstract  of 
what  is  carried  out  in  detail  in  the  essay. 
The  admirable  and  suggestive  essay  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  critical  account  of  the  history  of 
classification  which  is  on  the  critical  side  (not 
the  bibliographical,  however)  unequalled,  at 
least  in  any  of  the  sources  consulted  for  this 
work. 


148 
1S96.    System  of  Cave. 

Cave,    Alfred.      Introduction    to    Theology. 
Edinb.,  Clark,  1896,  8° ;  pp.  79-80. 

Outline. 


I. 

Mathematics. 

(i)  Arithmetic  and  Algebra. 

(2)  Geometry. 

II. 

Physic*. 

III. 

Chemistry. 

IV. 

Astronomy. 

(i)  Sidereal. 

(2)   Planetary. 

V. 

Biology. 

VI. 

Geology. 

VII. 

Pneumatology. 

(l)  Psychol ot>-. 

(2)  Logic. 

(3)  Ethics. 

(4;  JEsthetics. 

(S)  Philology. 

VIII. 

Sociology. 

IX. 

Theology. 

1896.    System  of  Stadler. 

Stadler,  August.  Zur  klassification  der  wis- 
senschaften,  in:  Archiv  f.  Syst.  Philos.  2 
(1896)  1-37,  w.  folding  table. 


149 
Outline. 

A,  Knowledge. 

(A)  Doctrine  of  phenomena. 

a.  Natural  science. 

(a)  Doctrine  of  bodies. 

1.  Cosmology. 

2.  Astronomy. 

3.  Science  of  the  earth. 

4.  Mineralogy. 
:                           5.  Biology. 

(b)  Psychology. 

1.  Subjective. 

2.  Objective. 

3.  Comparative. 

b.  Mathematics. 

a.  Geometry. 

b.  Arithmetic, 

c.  Kinetic. 

(B)  Doctrine  of  ideas. 

a.  Teleology. 

(a)  Pure  teleology. 

(b)  Applied  teleology. 

*  I.  Eudaemonistic  pedagogy. 

2.  Doctrine  of  "Goods." 

(i)  Economics     (material 

goods). 
(2)  .Esthetics       (spiritual 
goods). 


ISO 

b.  Ethics. 

(a)  Pure  ethics. 

(b)  Ethical  pedagogy. 
B.  Theory  of  knowledge. 

(A)  Formal  logic. 

(B)  Material  logic. 
Subdivisions  given  as  applying  to  some  or 

all  classes  under  Natural  science  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

I.  Morphology. 
II.  Chemistry. 

III.  Histology. 

IV.  Physics. 
V.  History. 

This  is  the  most  suggestive  of  recent  sys- 
tems— that  of  Wundt  possibly  excepted.  The 
lettering  of  notation  is  not  exactly  that  of 
Stadler,  but  is  changed  to  avoid  use  of  Greek 
and  German  letters. 

1898.    System  of  Goblot. 

GoBLOT,  Edmund.  Essai  sur  la  classification 
des  sciences.  Paris,  Alcan,  1898,  296  p.,  8*. 
Polybiblon  Pt.  Litt.,  1898,  399-402  (outline.) 

1898.    System  of  Naville. 

Naville,  Adrien.  Le  principe  general  de  la 
classification  des  sciences.  In :  Arch, 
f.  syst.  Philos.  iv.  (1898)  364-81. 


iSi 

Class,  ace.  to  the  possible  (Theorematique) 
the  real  (Histoire)  and  the  good  (Canon- 
ique.) 

1900.    System  of  Pearson. 

Pearson,  Karl.     The  grammar  of  science.  2 
ed.    Lond.,  1900,  8°,  pp.  514-527. 

Outline. 

A.  Abstract  Science. 

Logic,  orthology,  methodology  (qualita- 
tive.) 

Arithmetic,  algebra,  calculus,  etc.,  (quan- 
titative.) 

Geometry,  trigonometry,  etc.,  (Relations 
of  space.) 

Kinematics,  etc.,  (Relations  of  time.) 

B.  Concrete  Science. 
Precise  physical  sciences. 

Physics  of  the  ether  (light,  heat,  elec- 
tricity, magnetism,  etc.) 
Atomic  physics. 
Molecular  physics. 
Molar  physics. 

C.  Concrete  Science.    Organic  Phenomena. 
(Geography  and  natural  history  (old  sense) . 

(Space.) 

History  (including  evolution  of  species.) 

Biology. 
Morphology,  etc.,  (Form  and  structure.) 
Embryology,  etc.,  (Growth,  etc.) 


152 

Physiology. 
Psychology. 

Theory  of  instinct,  etc. 

Psychics. 

Sociology. 

1901.     System  of  These  Lectures. 

Hylology : 
Mathematics. 
Physics. 
Chemistry. 
Astronomy. 
Geology. 
Biology : 
Botany. 
Zoology. 

Physical  anthropology  (  ?) 
Anthropology : 
Psychology  (Human). 
Epistemology. 
Aesthetics. 
Useful  arts. 
Fine  arts. 

Language  and  literature. 
Ethics  (?) 
Sociology  (incl.  "History"). 
Theology : 
Cosmology. 
Christology. 
Ecclesiology. 
Theology  proper. 


153 

V.      PRACTICAL  SYSTEMS. 

Systems  of  book  classification  are  in  gen- 
eral distinguished  from  theoretical  systems 
not  merely  by  their  object  but  by  the  fact 
that  they  are  provided  with  a  notation.  It  is 
true  that  the  purely  theoretical  systems  are 
also  often  provided  with  what  might  be  called 
a  notation  whose  purpose  is  to  indicate  the 
logical  subordination  of  classes.  But  nota- 
tion in  general,  whether  logical  or  artificial,  is 
an  important  and  essential  characteristic  of 
book  classification,  and  for  this  reason  is 
touched  on  from  time  to  time  in  the  follow- 
ing sketch,  although  without  any  attempt  at 
exhausting  a  matter  with  which  this  work  is 
not  directly  concerned. 

There  is  a  strong  presumption  that  the 
practice  of  classifying  books  in  libraries  ex- 
tends back  nearly  to  the  accepted  date  for  the 
deluge.  It  is  probable  that  the  Egyptian  and 
Hebrew  (and  for  that  matter  the  Vedic  and 
Confucian  as  well)  temple  libraries  were  clas- 
sified at  a  very  early  date,  as  the  distribution 
of  the  Thoth  literature  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  books  in  the  Hebrew  canon  seem  to 
indicate,  even  if  the  present  form  of  the  latter 
as  some  contend  is  not  older  than  200  B.C. 

That  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  libraries 
were  classified  is  certain,  and  we  know  that 


154 

in  at  least  one  instance  the  books  of  poetry 
were  located  together  on  the  north  side  of  the 
library,  and  in  another  instance  we  have  a 
classed  catalog,  giving  25  tablets,  of  which 
14  contained  a  knowledge  of  the  earth  and  11 
a  knowledge  of  the  heavens,  subdivision  3  of 
this  second  class  being  Works  on  the  planet 
Venus,  4  On  the  planets  in  general,  5  and  6 
On  the  moon,  and  8  On  the  comets  (cf.  North 
Brit   Rev.  51  (1870)  168). 

There  are  many  other  similar  suggestions 
of  early  classification  and  doubtless  better  ex- 
amples than  those  given,  but  the  proper  his- 
tory of  book  classification  only  begins  with 
that  of  the  Alexandrian  library  as  expounded, 
if  not  invented,  by  Callimachus.  There  is  a 
curious  possibility  that  this  system,  too,  may  be 
traced  to  Aristotle,  and  that  he  may  be  found 
to  be  the  father  of  book  classification  as  well 
as  of  theoretical  systems,  for  Strabo  not  only 
says  that  he  was  the  first  collector  of  books 
of  whom  we  have  knowledge,  but  that  he 
taught  the  kings  of  Egypt  ("suntaxin")  "li- 
brary economy" !  —  at  least  this  seems  much 
more  literal  and  probable  than  Falconer's 
translation  "suggested  to  the  kings  of  Egypt 
the   formation   of  a  library"!       (Strabo   13, 

1:54) 

The  historical  tradition,  however,  begins 
with  Callimachus. 


155 

B.C.  260-240.    System  of  Callimachus  (Library 
of  Alexandria,  Egypt.) 

Catalogue  of  the  Alexandrian  Library  in 
120  books  (or  classes?).  The  work  is  lost, 
but  fragments  and  references  from  Athen- 
aeus,  Diogenes  Laertius,  Suidas,  Dionysius 
Halicarnassus,  and  others  are  collected  in: 
Wachsmuth,  C.  Die  pinakographische  thatig- 
keit  des  Kallimachos.  Philologus  16  (i860) 
653-66. 

The  outline  of  classification  seems,  so  far 
as  one  can  pick  it  out,  to  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: 

Poets. 

Lawmakers. 

Philosophers. 

Historians. 

Rhetoricians  (Orators.) 

Miscellaneous  writers. 
We  have  also  many  hints  of  subdivisions 
such   as   Epic,   Comic,   Tragic,   Dithyrambic, 
under  poetry,  also  Birds,  Fishes,  Geometry, 
Medicine,  Cheesecakes,  Feasts,  etc. 

The  subdivisions  seem  to  have  been,  in 
some  cases  at  least,  chronological  by  periods, 
and  in  the  short  miscellaneous  subjects  at 
least  probably  alphabetical  by  authors,  since 
Athenaeus  mentioning  four  writers  on  the 
subject  of  Cheesecakes  (Class  6)  gives  them 


IS6 

:n  alphabetical  order.  The  description  in- 
cluded author,  title  or  first  words  of  work 
and  number  of  lines  and  apparently  also  date 
and  place.  If  it  is  true,  as  has  been  alleged, 
that  Callimachus  used  the  catchwords  of  a 
title  or  first  word  of  work  to  indicate  the 
place  of  the  book,  this  was  a  true  "Abbre- 
viation notation." 

812.     The  Mediaeval  Libraries. 

In  the  mediaeval  period  the  monastic  libra- 
ries generally  (e.g.,  Staffelsee  812,  Reichenau 
822,  Friaul  837,  Lorsch  (loth  cent.,  etc.,  etc.,) 
arranged  their  Bibles  and  commentaries  first 
and  then  the  works  of  the  Fathers.  Some- 
times the  service  books  come  before  and 
sometimes  after,  and  secular  books  also 
formed  a  separate  class. 

831.    System  of  the  Monastic  Library  of  St. 
Requier. 

D'AcHERY.  Spicilegium,  iv.,  1 15-188;  Becker, 
Gustav.     Catal.   Bibl.   ant.    (Bonnae,   1885) 
24-9;  Edwards  2  (1859)  Table  2,  no.  i. 
Subdivisions     differ    slightly    from    those 
given  by  Edwards,  e.g.  Divinity  includes  nos. 
I- 195  and  is  divided  into  Bible  and  Commen- 
taries, Fathers  (alphabetically),  Canonics,  etc. 


157 

1347-    System  of  the  Monastic  Library  of  St. 

Emmeram  at  Ratisbon. 

ScHMELLER.  Uebcf  Biichcrcataloge  des  xv. 
und  friiherer  Jahrhunderte.  In :  Serapeum 
2  (1841)  16-18. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  Table  2,  no.  ii. ;  CoIIan; 
Pctzholdt  (1866)  21  (full  title  and  out- 
line.) 

1451.    System  of  the  Aldersbach  Monastic 
Library. 

ScHMELLER.     In:    Serapeum   2    (1841)    260; 
Becker,  Catal.  bibl.  ant.   (1885)  289;  Gott- 
lieb, p.  325. 
Classified  into  Magna,  Mediocria,  and  Man- 

ualia. 

1498.    System  of  Manutius. 

Manutius,  Aldus.    Libri  Graeci  impressi. 
Edwards   2    (1859)    761,    Table   2,    no.    iii. 
(gives  5  classes)  ;  Rouveyre  2   (1882)    10; 
Ottino  (1892)  120  (outline)  ;  Maire  (1896; 
182  (outline)  ;  Brown  (1898)  40  (outline.) 

1504.    System  of  Syon  Monastery. 

Bateson,  Mary,  ed.  Catalogue  of  the  library 
of  Syon  Monastery,  Isleworth.  Cam- 
bridge, 1898,  8'. 


158 

A,  Grammar  and  classics ;  B,  Medicine  and 
astrology;  C,  Philosophy;  D,  Commentaries 
on  the  sentences ;  E,  Bibles  and  Concord- 
ances; F-I,  Commentaries;  K,  History;  L, 
Dictionaries;  M,  Lives  of  saints;  N,  Fathers; 
O,  Devotional  tracts;  P-S,  Sermons;  T, 
Canon  law;  V,  Civil  law.  Not  divided  ac- 
cordmg  to  size,  but  subject  only. 

1546.    System  of  Estienne. 

Stephanus,  Henricus.  Index  librorum  qui 
officina  ejusdem  H.  S.  hactenus  prodierunt. 
Par.,  1560,  8°. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  762  (gives  14  classes), 
Table  2,  no.  iv. ;  Roaveyre  2  (1882)  11; 
Ottino  (1892)  120-21  (outline) ;  Maire 
(1896)   182. 

1560.    System  of  Trefler. 

Trefler^    Florian.      Methodus    exhibens  .  .  . 
quorumlibet    librorum,    ordinationem  .  .  . 
Augustae,  1560,  8°. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  763-4  (gives  17  classes)  ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  22-3  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  258  (full  title.) 

1583.    System  of  La  Croix  du  Maine. 

La  Croix  du  Maine.  Bibliotheques  fran- 
Soises.  Paris,  1684;  also  ed.  de  Juvigny. 
Paris,  1772-3,  6  v.,  4°,  IL  v.  2,  p.  25  sq. 


159 

Maire   (1896)    183   (full  title)    193-5   (out- 
line, 107  classes.) 

1597.    System  of  Maunsell. 

Maunsell,  Andrew.     Catal.  of  English  print- 
ed books.    Lond.,  1597. 
Brown  (1898)  41. 

1631.    System  of  Araoz. 

Araoz,  Francisco  de.      De  bene  disponenda 
Bibliotheca  .  .  .    Matriti,  1631,  8°. 
Petzholdt   (1866)   23-4   (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  259  (2  lines.) 

163 1.    System  of  Rhode   {University  of 
Padua. ) 

Hoffmann.  (Ein)  bibliothekswissenschaft - 
liches  Gutachten,  abgegeben  zu  Padua  im 
jahre  1631  .  .  .  Hamburg,  1856,  4° ;  also 
in:  Gratulationsschrift  1856,  p.  47-64,  and 
in:  Serapeum  17  (1856)  Intelligenzbl.,  no. 
2-5,  and  in:  Neuer  Anz.  1856,  p.  71-8. 
Edwards  2  (1859)  p.  769-71,  Table  2,  no.  vi. 
(model  of  Naude)  ;  Petzholdt  (1866)  24 
(full  title  and  outline) ;  Gar  (1868)  259 
(full  title.) 

1635.    System  of  Clemens. 

Clemens,  Claudius.    Musei  sive  Bibliothecae 
.  .  .  instructio,    etc.,    libri.    iv.       Lugduni, 

1635,  a"- 


i6o 

Peignot  2  (1802)  220-80;  Home  2  (1814) 
556;  Edwards  2  (1859)  796,  Table  2,  no. 
vii. ;  Mira  2  (1862)  134-5;  Petzholdt  (1866) 
25  (full  title  and  outline)  ;  Maire  (1896) 
183 ;  195-6  (outline)  ;  Clarke,  in :  Library 
10  (1898)  327-9;  385-7  (outline.) 

1635.    System  of  Arias  Montanus. 

Arias  Montanus.  Regiae  Bibliothecae  S. 
Lavrentii  Escorialis  descriptio  .  .  .  Lug- 
duni,  1635,  4°. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  203-4;  Achard  i  (1806-7) 
216-8;  Petzholdt  (1866)  24  (full  title  and 
outline);  Gar  (1868)  259  (full  title.) 

1643.    System  of  Naude. 

Naud£,  Gabriel.  Bibliotheca  Cordesianae 
catalogus  .  .       Parisiis,  1643,  4°. 

Naud£,  Gabriel.  Dissertatio  de  instruenda 
Bibliotheca  (Schmidt,  De  Bibliothecis. 
Helmst.,  1703,  4°,  p.  122,  123.) 

Naud.^,  Gabriel.  Advis  pour  dresser  une  bi- 
bliotheque.  Par.,  1627,  8°. 
Hottinger  (1664)  80-1  (outline)  ;  Legipon- 
tius  (1747)  42;  Peignot  2  (1802)  246; 
Home  2  (1814)  561-2;  Constantin  2  ed. 
(1842)  158;  Edwards  2  (1859)  771,  Table 
2,  no.  v.;  Mira  2  (1862)  135;  Petzholdt 
(1866)  25  (full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar 
(1868)  259:  Maire  (1896)  183;  Clarke,  in: 
Library  10  (1898)  387-90  (outline.) 


i6i 

1646.    System  of  Jacob. 

Jacob,  R.  P,  Lud.    Bibliographia  Gallica  uni- 
versalis,   1646.     Elenchus   materiarum   bib- 
liographiae  parisinae.     Parisiis,  1647,  4°. 
Home  2    (1814)    558;   Maire    (1896)    183; 
196-7    (outline.) 

1658.    System  of  London. 

London,  William.       Catalogue  of  the  most 
vendible  books,  etc.    Lond.,  1658. 
Brown  (1898)  42. 

BEFORE  1664.    System  of  Mabunus. 

Mabunus,  Johannes. 
Hottinger  (1664)  80  (Three  classes:  Mora- 
lia,     Theoretica,     Ascetica) ;     Legipontius 
(1747)  47. 

BEFORE  1664.    System  of  Frisius. 

Frisius,  Jacobus. 
Hottinger  (1664)  81-2  (outline.) 

1664.    System  of  Hottinger. 

Hottinger,  Johann  Heinrich.    Bibliothecarius 
quadripartitus.    Tiguri,  1664,  4°,  p.  84-88, 
Petzholdt    (1866)    26    (full   title   and   out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  259  (2  lines.) 

1669.     System  of  Fabri. 

Fabri,     Honoratus.       Euphyander.       Lugd., 
1669,  12°. 
Legipontius  (1747)  47  (outline.) 


1 62 

1669.    System  of  Lomeier. 

LoMEiER,  Johann.  De  bibliothecis  liber  sin- 
gularis.  .  .  .  Helmstadii,  1705,  4° ;  also 
Zutphaniae,  1669,  8° ;  Amst.,  1669,  8°  ? ;  2 
ed.    Ultraj.,  1680,  8°. 

Home  2  (1814)  560;  Petzholdt  (1866)  26 
(full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  259. 

1678.    System  of  Gamier. 

Garnier,  Jean.  Systema  Bibliothecae  Col- 
legii  Parisiensis  Societats  Jesu.  Parisiis 
.  .  .  1678.  .  .  .  Francofurti,  1728,  4° ;  also 
in:  Serapeum  11  (1850)  Intelligenzbl.  105- 
10,  113,  121-26,  129-33,  137-40. 
Home  2  (1814)  557-8;  Constantin  (1842) 
154;  Edwards  2  (1859)  774-6,  Table  2,  no. 
viii.  (461  subdivisions.  Main  ones  given 
here);  Mira  2  (1862)  135-6;  Petzholdt 
(1866)  26-7  (full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar 
(1868)  259;  Maire  (1896)  183;  Brown 
(1898)  42  (outline.) 

1679.    System  of  Bouilleaud. 

BouiLLEAUD.  Bibliotheca  Thuana.  Paris, 
1679,  8° ;  Hamburg,  1679,  8° ;  also  in :  Sera- 
peum, Jahrg.  13  ( 1852)  ;  Intelligenzbl.  105- 
9,  113-17,  121-26,  129-33,  137-41,  145-49, 
153-56. 


i63 

Legipontius  (1747)  49;  Edwards  2  (1859) 
77J-4.  etc.,  Table  2,  no.  ix.  ("usual  French 
system");  Petzholdt  (1866)  27  (full  title 
and  outline);  Gar  (1868)  259-60;  Maire 
(1896)  183. 

1683.    System  of  Baillet. 

Baillet,  Adrien.     Jugemens  des  savans  sur 
les  principaux  ouvrages  des  auteurs  .  .  . 
Amst.,  1725,  4° ;  first  Par.,  1685-6,  12° ;  1722- 
30,  4°. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  204-7;  Achard  i  (1806-7) 
218-19;  Petzholdt  (1866)  27-8  (full  title 
and  outline)  ;  Gar  (i868'>  260. 

1683.    System  of  Ott. 

Otv,  Johann  Heinrich.     Neujahrsblatt  hrsg. 
von  der  Stadtbiblicthek  in  Zurich.    [Zurich, 
1845,]  4°,  p.  79,  "Series  Repositorium  .  .  . 
bibl.     Tigurinorum  a  1683";  also  in  Sera- 
peum  (1849)  Intelligenzbl.,  p.  93-4. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  27  (full  title  and  outline.) 

1688.    System  of  Morhof. 

MoRHOF,  Daniel  Georg.  Polyhistor.  liter- 
arius,  philosophicus  et  practicus.  .  .  .  Lu- 
becae,  1747,  4° ;  also  Lubec,  1688,  4° ;  1695, 
4°;  1708,4°;  1714-1732. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  28-9  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  260  (full  title.) 


i64 

1697.    System  of  Rostgaard. 

RosTGAARD,  Frederic.     Projet  d'une  nouvellc 
methode   pour   dresser   le   catalogue   d'une 
bibliotheque  .  .  .     Francofurti,  1728,  4°. 
Petzholdt    (1866)    29    (full   title   and   out- 
line) ;  Gar,  (1868)  260. 

1705.    System  of  Gabriel  Martin. 

MartiNj  Gabr.  Bibliotheca  Bultelliana,  etc., 
8°.  Paris,  1711,  12°;  .(also  the  catals.  of 
Dufay,  Hoym,  de  Rothelin  and  Bellanger.) 
Diderot  et  D'Alembert.  Encyclopedie,  v.  2, 
(Paris,  1851,)  art.  Catalogue  p.  760-1 
("best  and  most  generally  adopted  at  date" ; 
outline  given.) 

Peignot  2  (1802)  236-7;  Achard  2  (1806-7) 
107;  Edwards  2  (1859)  781-2,  Table  2,  no. 
ix.7  ("Modification  of  Bouilleaud")  ;  Petz- 
holdt (1866)  29-30  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  260-1 ;  Rouveyre  2  (1882)  14-15. 

1709.    System  of  Marchand. 

Marchand,  Prosper,  Catalogus  librorum 
bibliothecae  loachimi  Faultrier.  Paris,  1709, 
8°. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  235-6;  Achard  2  (1806-7) 
10-16;  Edwards  2  (1859)  777,  Table  i,  no. 
iii. ;  Petzholdt  (1866)  30  full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  261. 


i65 

1709.    System  of  Fontanini. 

FoNTANiNi,  Justus.  Dispositio  catalog!  Bib- 
liothecae  Josephi  Renati  .  .  .  Romae,  1709, 
4°;  also  171 1,  f°,  p.  583-720;  also  Franco- 
furti,  1728,  p.  145-88. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  777-8  (17  classes  given, 
1828  in  all ;  alphabetical  arr.  in  general)  ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  30  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  261. 

1718.    System  of  Leibnitz. 

Leibnitz,  G.  W.  Idea  bibliothecae  publicae 
secundum  classes  scientiarum  ordinandae, 
in:  Otium  Hanoveranum,  etc.  Leipz.,  1718, 
8°,  p.  128-38;  also  in  Opera  omnia.  Gen- 
evae,  1768,  4°,  v.  5,  p.  209-14. 
Home  2  (1814)  559;  Edwards  2  (1859) 
776-7,  Table  2,  no.  x.  (10  main  classes)  ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  30-1  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  261-2;  Flint,  in:  Presb. 
R.  6  (1885)  431-2  (outline);  Shields,  Phil- 
osophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  60  (mention  "aca- 
demic") 

1723.    System  of  Middleton. 

MiDDLETON,  Conyers.    Bibliothecae  Cantabrig- 
iensis   ordinandae   methodus   qaedam  .  .  . 
Cantabrigiae,  1723,  4°  ;  also  in :  Misc.  works, 
1755,  8°;  1752-7,  4°,  V.  3,  p.  475-502;  also 


i66 

in:  Serapeum  ii  .(1850)  Intelligenzbl.  p. 
81-83,  89-91. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  779-81,  Table  2,  no.  xi; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  31  .(full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  262. 

1736.    System  of  Cocchi. 

CoccHi,  Antonio.  (Biblioteca  Magliabechiana 
now  part  of  the  B.  Nazionale  at  Florence.) 
Fumagalli  (1890)  93-4  (Forty  classes  by 
subjects,  each  divided  again  by  size  and 
books  arranged  alphabetically  by  author  in 
each  class  outline.) 

1742.    System  of  Frobesms. 

Frobesius,  Jo.  Nicolaus.    Bibliotheca  Meibo- 
miana.    Helmaestadi,  1742,  8°. 
Petzholdt   (1866)   31-2   (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  262  (full  title.) 

1746.    System  of  Formey. 

FoRMEY,  Samuel.  Conseils  pour  former  une 
bibliotheque  peu  nombreuse,  mais  choisie 
.  .  .  Ber.,  1756,  8° ;  (also  1746,  I750,  I754, 
1764,  I775-) 

Home  2  (1814)  557;  Petzholdt  (1866)  32 
(full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  262. 

1747.    System  of  Beccelli. 

Beccelli,  Julius  Caesar.  De  bibliotheca  insti- 
tuenda  ac  ordinanda  liber.  Veronae,  1747, 
4°. 


i67 

Petzholdt    (1866)    32    (full   title   and   out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  262  (men.) 

1747.    System  of  Legipontius. 

Legipontius^  Oliver.  Dissertationes  philolog- 
ico-bibliographicae  .  .  .  Norimbergae,  1747 
4",  p.  51-65;  also  in  Spanish,  1759,  8°. 
Home  (1814)  559-60;  Petzholdt  (1866) 
32-3  (full  title  and  outline);  Gar  (1868) 
262  (full  title.) 

1747.    System  of  Crucemannusf. 

Legipontius  (1747)  46-7  (outline.) 

1747.    System  of  the   WolfenbUttel  Library. 
Legipontius  (1747)  47  (outline.) 

1748.    System  of  Francke. 

Francke,  J.  M.     Catalogi  Bibliothecae  Bu- 
navianae  specimen.    Lipsiae,  1748,  4°. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  33-4  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  .(1868)  263. 

1760.    System  of  Casiri. 

Casiri,    Michael.     Bibliotheca    Arabico-His- 
pana  Escurialensis.    Matriti,  1760-70,  i°. 
Peignot  2  (1802)  220;  Petzholdt  (1866)  34 
(full  title  and  outline)  ;  Mira  2  (1862)  J36; 
Gar  (1868)  263  (men.) 


i68 

1763.    System  of  De  Bure. 

De  Bure,  Guillaume.  Catalogue  des  livres  de 
la  Bibliotheque  de  feu  ,  .  .  le  Due  de  la 
Valliere.  Par.,  1783,  8°,  v.  i,  p.  xxxv-lx. 
De  Bure,  Guillaume,  Bibliographic  Instruc- 
tive. Par,,  1763,  8°,  p.  xv-lxvi. 
Peignot  2  (1802)  237-44;  Clarke  2  (1806) 
162-197;  Achard  2  (1806-7)  107- 161 ;  Ed- 
wards 2  (1859)  781-2,  Table  2,  no.  ix.  (Mod- 
ification of  Bouilleaud)  ;  Mira  2  .(1862)  150- 
59  (detailed)  ;  Petzholdt  .(1866)  34-5  (full 
title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  263. 

1 773-    System  of  Cels. 

Cels,   Jacques   Martin,    and   Lottin,    A.    M. 
Coup  d'oeil  eclaire  d'une  grand  bibliotheque 
k  I'usage  de  tout  possesseur  de  livres,  1773. 
Clarke,  in:  The  Library  10  .(1898)  390,  391, 
394-S  (outline,  adaptation  of  Bouilleaud's.) 

1774.    System  of  Denis. 

Denis,  Mich.     Einleitung  in  die  biichkunde, 
1777-8;  Ed.  2.    Wien,  179S-96,  4°. 
Denis,  Mich.     Grundriss  d.   Bibliographic. 
Wien,  1774,  8°. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  232-3;  Achard  i  (1806-7) 
281-2;  Edwards  2  .(1859)  789-90  (gives  7 
main  classes);  Mira  2  (1862)  137-8;  Petz- 
holdt (1866)  35  (full  title  and  outline); 
Gar  (1868)  263-4. 


i6q 
1793'    System  of  Sckutz-Huf eland  and  Ersch. 

[SchOtz-Hufeland]  &  Ersch.  Allegemeines 
repertorium  der  literatur  fiir  die  jahr  1785 
bis  1790  (-1800?)  Jena,  1793-94. 
Ersch,  Johann  Samuel.  Handbuch  der 
deutschen  literatur.  Lpz.,  1812-14,  2  v.,  8°. 
Peignot  2  (1802)  ;  Achard  2  (1806-7)  42- 
98;  Constantin  2  ed.  (1842)  195;  Edwards 
2  (1859)  p.  789,  Table  2,  no.  xii.  (1200 
classes,  of  which  E.  gives  16  principal, 
"translated  at  length  in  Achard")  ;  Petz- 
holdt  (1866)  36-7  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  264  (men.);  Grasel  (1890) 
152-3   (outline.) 

This  system  is  honored  by  Grasel  as  "be- 
yond a  doubt  one  of  the  best,"  with  first 
place  and  most  attention,  and  he  recommends 
it  to  the  librarian  as  in  many  respects  a  model. 
Its  notation  is  certainly  not  a  model,  for  it 
seems  liable  to  run  to  I.  2.  B.  b.  a.  aa.  aa.  bbb. 
bbb.  bbbb-Art  of  war — the  italics  here  repre- 
senting the  corresponding  Greek  letters. 

1798.    System   of  Camus. 

Camus,  A.  G.  Observations  sur  la  distribu- 
tion et  le  classernent  des  livres  d'une  bib- 
liothgque.  Par.,  1798.  In:  Memoires  Je 
rinstitut  .  .  .  Litterature.  v.  i  (1798)  ,643- 
66,  675-6. 


170 

Peignot2  (1802)  218-20;  Achard  i  (1806-7) 
252-80;  Home  2  (1814)  555-6;  Edwards  2 
(1859)  786;  Mira  2  (1862)  139-40;  Petz- 
holdt  (1866)  37-8  (full  title  and  outline); 
Gar  (1866)  264  (men.) 

1799.    System  of  Ameilhon. 

Ameilhon.  Pro  jet  sur  quelques  changemens 
...  a  nos  catalogues  de  bibliotheques.  In : 
Memoires  de  I'lnstitut  National  Litterature 
et  Beaux  Arts  2  (Paris,  1799,  4°,)  477-92. 
Peignot  2  (1802)  202-3;  Achard  i  (1806-7) 
197-216;  Home  2  (1814)  554-S;  Edwards  2 
(1859)  785-6,  Table  2,  no.  xiii. ;  Mira  2 
(1862)  139;  Petzholdt  (1866)  38-9  (full 
title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  264  (men.) 

1800.    System  of  Coste. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  230-2;  Achard  i  (1806-7) 
280-1;  Petzholdt  (i866)  39  (outline  from 
Peignot)  ;  Gar  (1868)  264  (men.) 

1800.    System  of  Daunou. 

Daunou,  p.  CI.  Fr.  Memoire  sur  la  classifi- 
cation des  livres  d'une  grande  bibliotheque 
...  In:  Bulletin  du  bibliophile  4  (1840- 
41)  402-10;  also,  abbreviated.  Paris,  1841. 
Constantin  (1842)  188-90;  Edwards  2 
(1859)  787-8  (gives  33  classes  in  8)  ;  Petz- 
holdt (1866)  39  (full  title  and  outline); 
Gar  (1S6S)  264-5  (6  lines.) 


171 

i8oi.    System  of  Loire. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  234-s;  Achard  2  (1806-7) 
98-100;  Edwards  2  (1859)  768-9;  Petzholdt 
(1866)  39-40  (outline  from  Peignot)  ;  Gar 
(1868)  264  (men.) 

1801,    System  of  Parent. 

Parent,   aine.      Essai   sur   la  bibliographic. 
Par.,  1801,  8°. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  246-7;  Achard  2  (1806-7) 
9-12;  Home  2  (1814)  561-2;  Edwards  2 
(1859)  788,  Table  2,  no.  xiv.;  Petzholdt 
(1866)  40  (full  title  and  outline) ;  Gar 
(1868)  26s  (men.)  ;  Maire  (1896)  197  (out- 
line.) 

1802.    System  of  Ferrario. 

Ferrario,  Giulio.    Progetto  per  un  catalogo 
bibliografico.    Milano,  1802,  8°. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  40-1   (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  .(1868)  265. 

1802.    System  of  the  Bihliothhque  Nationale, 
Paris. 

Rapport  de  M.  Leopold  Delisle,  administra- 
teur  general  de  la  BibliothSque  nationale  a 
M.  le  Ministre  de  ITnstruction  publique,  3 
juin,  1885.  (Bulletin  des  bibliotheques  et 
des  archives  4  (1885)  23  sq. 
Peignot  2    (1802)   208-13    (outline) ;   Rou- 


172 

veyre  2  (1882)  63-66  (outline);  Fumagalli 

(1890)  99-101  (outline);  Maire  (1896)  223 

(outline.) 

Thirty  main  classes  indicated  by  letters,  the 
extra  ones  being  D',  E*,  O',  O',  P",  Vm,  Y'. 
Minute  subdivisions.  Order  on  shelves  (i) 
Main  classes ;  (2)  Accession  periods :  period 
I  arr.  ace,  to  old  catalogue. 

1802.    System  of  Massol. 

Peignot  2  (1802)  244-6;  Achard  2  (1806-7) 
6-9;  Petzholdt  (1866)  40  (outline  from 
Peignot)  ;  Gar  (1868)  264  (men.) 

1802.  System  of  Peignot. 

Peignot,  G.  Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  biblio- 
logie  2  (Paris,  1802)  256-80. 
CJarke  2  (1806)  208-18;  Achard  2  (1806-7) 
12-42;  Home  2  (1814)  562-3;  Edwards  2 
(1859)  768-9;  Mira  2  (1862)  140-5  (de- 
tailed) ;  Petzholdt  (1866)  41  (full  title  and 
outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  265. 

1803.  System  of  Barbier. 

Barbier,  a.  a.  Quelques  idees  sur  les  di- 
visions du  catalogue  de  la  bibliotheque  du 
Conseil  d'etat.  Paris,  1803,  f  °  ;  also  in :  Bul- 
letin du  bibliophile  7  (1845)  119-21;  also 
in :  Leipziger  allgemeinen  press-zeitung  2 
(1841)  sp.  53-55,  201-7. 


173     . 

Achard  i  (1806-7)  219;  Home  2  (1814) 
556;  Constantin  (1842)  161-80;  Edwards  2 
(1859)  796,  Table  2,  no.  ix.  (arrangement 
of  Bouilleaud)  ;  Mira  2  (1862)  59-79  (de- 
tailed); Petzholdt  (1866)  41-2  (full  title 
and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  265. 

1806.     Systetn  of  v.  Demidoff. 

Demidoff,  Paul  de.     Catalogue  systematique 
des  livres  .  .  .  v.  i.    Moscou,  1806,  4°. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  42  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  265-6  (outline.) 

1807.  System  of  Achard. 
Achard,  C.  F.    Cours  elementaire  de  biblio- 

graphie  2  (1807)   161-243. 
Mira  2  (1862)  145-50  (detailed.) 
Edwards  2   (1859)   796,  Table  2,  no.  ix.  2 
(modification     of     Bouillaud)  ;     Petzholdt 
(1866)   42-3    (full  title  and  outline)  ;   Gar 
(1868)  266  (outline.) 

1808.  System  of  Olenin. 

Olenin,  E.  a.  Essai  sur  un  nouvel  ordre 
bibliographique  pour  la  Bibliotheque  Im- 
periale  de  St.  Petersburg  ...  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1808,  4".  (Reprinted  in  the  first  Re- 
port on  British  Museum,  1835,  App.,  457.) 
Edwards  2  (1859)  790,  Table  2,  no.  xv. ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  43  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  266  (outline.) 


174 

1809.  System  of  Girault. 

GiRAULT,  CI.  Xav.     Systeme  de  bibliographic. 
.  .  .    Dijon,  1809,  8°. 

Achard  2  (1806-7)  73-85;  Edwards  2  (1859) 
790-1,  Table  i,  no.  vi. ;  Petzholdt  (1866) 
43  (full  title  and  outline);  Gar  (1868)  266 
(outline.) 

1810.  System  of  Brunei. 

Brunet,  Gustav.  Manuel  du  libraire  et  de 
I'amateur  de  livres.  Paris,  i860- 1865,  6  v., 
8°;  V.  6,  col.  xxvii.  4  ed.  5  (Paris,  1844, 
8°)  1-798;  I  ed.,  i8io. 
Constantin  (1842)  180-3;  Edwards  2  (1859) 
796,  Table  2,  no.  ix.  i  (modification  of 
Bouilleaud) ;  Mira  2  (1862)  79-202  (de- 
tailed) ;  Petzholdt  (1866)  44  (full  title  and 
outline) ;  Gar  (1868)  266-7  (outline) ; 
Rouveyre  (1882)  21-40  (very  detailed); 
Ottino  (1892)  123-238;  Maire  (1896)  186 
(contains  a  long  series  of  special  criticisms 
by  Prieur) ;  Maire  (1896)  198-208  (de- 
tailed outline) ;  Brown  (1898)  43  (outline)  ; 
The  Library  10  (1898)  162-3  (outline.) 
Outline. 

Theology. 

Jurisprudence. 

Sciences  and  arts. 

Belles-lettres. 


175 

Historj'  (including  literary  history  and 
bibliography.) 
More  than  eleven  hundred  subdivisions  are 
given  in  the  table  to  the  5th  edition  (1864.) 
Founded  as  this  system  was  on  a  very  large 
number  of  actual  titles,  it  has  many  elements 
of  practicality.  This  practicality  combined 
with  its  accessibility  and  the  fact  that  the 
titles  were  actually  classified  have  combined 
to  make  this  the  most  used  of  all  biblio- 
graphical systems,  up  to  very  recent  times  at 
least. 

1812.    System  of  the  Bibliographic  de  la 
France. 

BiBLioGRAPHiE  DE  LA  FRANCE.  Tableau  bib- 
liographique  des  ouvrages  en  tous  genres 
qui  ont  paru  en  France  .  .  .  Par.,  1812,  sq. 
Constantin  (1842)  183-5;  Petzholdt  (1866) 
44-5  (full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868) 
267-8. 
This  is  not  the  same  as  the  system  of  the 

present  periodical  of  this  name  whose  outline 

is  given  by  Maire. 

1814.    First  System  of  Home. 

HoRNE,  Thomas  Hartwell.  An  introduction  to 
the  study  of  Bibliography.  Lond.,  1814,  p. 
373-402. 

Petzholdt    (1866)    45    (full  title  and  out- 
line);  Gar  (1868)  268. 


176 

iSiQ.    System  of  For  Ha  d' Urban. 

FoRTiA  d'Urban,  Agricole.  Nouveau  sis- 
teme  de  bibliographic  alfabetique  .  .  .  ed. 
2.     Par.,  1822,  12°. 

Constantin  (1842)  186-7;  Petzholdt  (1866) 
47-8  (full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868) 
269;  Maire  (1896)   197-8  (outline.) 

1819.    System  of  Schrettinger. 

ScHRETTiNGER,  Martin.  Versuch  eines  voU- 
standigen  lehrbuchs  der  bibliothekswissen- 
schaft  ,  .  .  Miin.,  1829,  8°, 
Constantin  (1842)  196;  Petzholdt  (1866) 
49  (full  title  and  outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  269; 
Clarke,  in:  The  Library  10  (1898)  391-2. 

1821.    System  of  Thun. 

ThuNj  Johann  Paul.      Neues  buchverzeich- 
niss.     Lpz.,  1843-48,  8°. 
Constantin  (1842)   195-6;  Petzholdt  (1866; 
49-50   (full  title  and  outline);  Gar  (1866) 
269-70  (outline.) 

1825.    Second  System  of  Home. 

HoRNE,  Thomas  Hartwell.     Catalogue  of  the 
library  of  Queen's  College,  Cambridge  .  .  . 
Camb.  (Eng.,)  1827,  2  v.,  8°;  also  in:  Out- 
lines   for    the    classification    of    a    library. 
Lond.,  1825,  4°  (100  copies.) 
Edwards  2  (1859)  793-6,  Table  2,  no.  ix.  3 


177 

(modification  of  Bouillaud)  ;  Petzholdt 
(1866)  50  (full  title  and  outline);  Brown 
(x8q8)  43-4  (outline.) 

1826.     System  of  Reuss. 

Reuss,  Ferdinand  Friedrich.  Ordo  Biblio- 
thecae  Universitatis  Caesareae  Mosquensis. 
Mosquae,  1826,  4°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  50-51  (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  270;  Flint,  in:  Presb.  R. 
6  (1885)  435  (mention.) 

1826.  System  of  Pipitone. 

PiPiTONE,  Stefano.  Discorso  ossia  Progetto  di 
un  nuovo  piano  di  classificazione.     Paler- 
mo, 1826,  100  p.,  8°. 
Gar  (1868)  270  (full  title  and  outline.) 

1827.  System  of  Mortillaro. 

MoRTiLLARO,  Vincenzo.     Studio  bibliografico. 
Palermo,  1827,  8° ;  also  1832,  8°. 
Petzholdt    (1866)    SI    (full   title   and   out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  270. 

1828.    System  of  the  Tableau  compare  des 
productions  bibliographiques. 

Tableau    compare   des    productions   biblio- 
graphiques.    Quoted    in:    Bailly.     Notices 
sur  les  bibliotheques.     Paris,  1828,  8". 
Edwards  2   (1859)   796,  Table  2,  no.  ix.  4 
(modification  of  Bouilleaud.) 


178 

i834-    First  System  of  Namur. 

Namur,   p.     Manuel   du  bibliothecaire  .  .  . 
Bruxelles,  1834,  8°. 

Petzholdt   (1866)   5 1 -2   (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  271  (outline.) 

1835.    System  of  Thieneniann. 

ThienemanNj  T.  G.  Verzeichniss  eines  an- 
sehnlichen  theils  der  bibliothek  zu  Rochlitz. 
.  .  .  Lpz.,  1835.  Repr.  in :  Serapeum,  8 
(1847)  Intelligenrblatt  155-158,  161-166. 
Edwards  2  ( 1859)  Table  2,  no.  xiv.,  "too  fine 
spun  for  common  use" ;  Petzholdt  ( 1866) 
52-3  (full  title  and  outline);  Gar  (1868) 
271-2. 

1835.     System  of  Friedrich. 

Friedrich,  Job.  Cpht  Kritische  erorterungn. 
zum  iibereinstimmenden  ordnen  und  ver- 
zeichnen  offentlicher  bibliotheken.  Lpz., 
1835,  8°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  52  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1863)  271. 

1835.    System  of  the  London  Institution. 

Thomson,  R.,  Bragley,  E.  W.,  and  Maltby, 
William.     Catalogue  of  the  library  of  the 
London  Institution  systematically    classed. 
Lond.,  1835. 
Brown  (1898)  44- 


179 

1836.    System  of  the  British  Museum. 

Garnett,  R.  On  the  system  of  classifying 
books  on  the  shelves  followed  at  the  British 
Museum.  Lib.  J.  2  (1877)  194-200  [descrip- 
tive outline]  same  art.  Trans,  of  Confer- 
ence of  Librarians.  Lond.,  1877,  108-114, 
188-193. 

Harris,  G.  W.    The  British  Museum  system 
of  press-numbering.     In :  Library  Journal, 
12  (1887)  331-4- 
Fumagalli    (1890)    107-8;     The   Library    9 

(1897)  205     (10    class    outline);     Brown 

(1898)  45-8  (outline.) 

L,  Theology;  IL,  Jurisprudence;  IIL,  Nat- 
ural history  and  Medicine;  IV.,  Archaeology 
and  arts;  V.,  Philosophy;  VI.,  History;  VII., 
Geography;  VIII.,  Biography;  IX.,  Belles 
Lettres;  X.,  Philology. 

1837.    System  of  Aime-Martin. 

Aime-Martin,  L.     Plan    d'une    bibliotheque 
universelle  .  .  .    Bruxelles,  1837,  12°. 
Petzholdt    (1866)    S3    (full   title   and   out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1866)  272. 

1838.    System  of  Levot. 

Levot,  Prosper  Jean.  Catalogue  general  des 
livres  composant  les  Bibliotheques  du  De- 
partement  de  la  Marine  et  des  Colonies. 
Par.,  1838-43.    5  v.,  8°. 


iSo 

Petzholdt  (1866)  53-4  (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  272. 

1838.    System  of  Bliedener. 

[Bliedener,  Alexander.]     Kayser.     Vollstan 
diges  Biicher  Lexicon,  Sachregister.     Leip- 
zig, 1838. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  53  (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  272;  Maire  (1896)  214 
(outline.) 

1  1839.     System  of  Muquardt. 

MuQUARDT,  C.  Bibliographie  de  la  Belgiquc 
ou  catalogue  general  de  Timprimerie  et  de 
la  librairie  Beiges  .  .  .  Bruxelles,  1838,8°. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  54  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  272. 

1839.    Second  System  of  Namur. 

Namur,  a.  Catalogue  de  la  bibliotheque  de 
I'Athenee  Royal  Grand-Ducal  de  Luxem- 
bourg .  .  .  Luxembourg,  1855,  8°. 
Namur,  A.  Projet  I'un  nouveau  systemc 
des  connaissances  humaines.  Bruxelles, 
1839,  8°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  54-5  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  272  (men.) 

1839.    System  of  Preusker.     (Lib'y  of  Gros- 
senhain.) 

Preusker,  Karl.  Wissenschaftliches  System 
einer  Aufstellung  statlicher  Burger-  u.  an- 


i8i 

dere  bibliotheken,  in :  Serapeum  .( 1850)  In- 
telligenz-Blatt,  p.  97-101 ;  also  separately 
Miessen,  1850,  8°. 

Preusker,  Karl.  (Die)  stadt-bibliothek  in 
Grossenhain,  etc.  Grossenhain,  1836,  3 
Aufl.,  1841 ;  4  aufl.,  1847,  8° ;  1853,  8°. 
Edwards  2  (1859)  Table  2,  no.  xvii. ;  Petz- 
holdt  (1866)  55  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  (1868)  272. 

1840.    System    of    Lehmann    and    Petersen. 

Lehmann,  J.  G.  C,  and  Petersen,  C.  Ansich- 
ten  und  baurisse  der  neuen  gebaude  fiir 
Hamburgs  iJflfentliche  bildungsanstalten,  kurz 
besschrieben  und  in  verbindung  mit  dem 
plan  fiir  die  kiinftige  Aufstellung  der  Stadt- 
bibliothek  herausgegeben.  Hamburg,  1840; 
also  in:  Serapeum  8  (1847)  Intelligenzbl. 
169-73,  177-83,  185-91,  9  (1848)  ;  Intelli- 
genzbl. 1-7,  9-12,  17-22,  ^5-29,  33-40,  41-48, 
49-55,  57-63,  65-71,  73-74. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  55-6  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  272-3;  Fumagalli  (1890) 
III  (F.  gives  18  classes  (A-S).  A  has  48 
subdivisions,  G  195,  etc.) 

1841.    System  of  Rossi. 

Rossi,  Francesco.  Cenni  storici  e  descrittivi 
intorno  all'  I.  R.  biblioteca  di  Brera.  Mi- 
lano,  1841,  8",  p.  23-71. 


l82 

Petzholdt  (1866)  56  (full  title  and  outline)  ; 
Gar  .(1868)  273. 

1841.    System  of  Park. 

Park,  Roswell.  Pantology  or  a  systematic 
survey  of  human  knowledge.  1841,  8° ;  3 
ed.     1843,  8°. 

Shields,  Philosophia  Ultima  2  (1889)  61 
("bibliographical.") 

1842.    System  of  Merlin. 

Merlin,  R.  Catalogue  de  la  bibliotheque  de 
Sylvestre  de  Sacy.  Par.,  1842-47,  3  v.,  8°, 
V.  3,  xx-xxiv. 

Merlin,  R.  Classification  of  works  into  cat- 
alogues. In ;  Norton's  Literary  Register, 
1854,  p.  81-4. 

Edwards  2  (1859)  p.  801-4,  Table  i,  no.  xi. ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  57  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  273. 

Outline. 
I.  Philosophy. 
II.  Theological  sciences. 
III.  Cosmological  sciences. 

1.  Mathematical  science. 

2.  Physical  science. 

3.  Astronomical  science, 

4.  Geological  science. 

5.  Mineralogical  science. 

6.  Phytological  science. 


i83 

7.  Zoological  science. 

8.  Anthropological  science. 

Individual  man. 

Physical. 

Moral. 
Society. 

Social  or  Political  sciences. 

Historical  sciences. 
This  extremely  interesting  classification  is 
"based  upon  the  logical  classification  of  the 
sciences."  Merlin  advocated  classifying  by 
"the  objects"  "arranged  in  the  organic  scale 
of  being  .  .  .  according  to  the  chronological 
order  of  creation,  that  is  to  say  arising  from 
the  most  simple  to  the  most  perfect."  Sub- 
stitute complex  for  perfect,  and  here  we  have 
the  modern  evolutionary  conception  in  its 
plainest  form  applied  to  books.  It  is  amusing 
at  this  day  to  note  that  Edwards,  criticising 
the  system  of  Merlin,  in  1859  calls  evolution 
"that  theory — graceful  but  unsound — which 
had  so  many  charms  in  its  early  stages"  a 
philosophical  blunder.  "What  sort  of  a  science 
of  palaeontology,"  he  asks,  "should  we  now 
possess  had  all  who  cultivated  it  insisted  on 
working  it  out  under  the  supremacy  of  that 
theory."  It  is  a  matter  of  extreme  interest 
to  American  libraries  that  at  that  famous  con- 
vention of  1853,  from  which  most  that  is  prac- 
tical m  modern  library  method  sprang,  the 


i84 

first  library  plea  for  an  evolutionary  system 
of  classification  for  books  was  presented.  We 
have  seen  "what  sort  of  a  science  of  palaeon- 
tology" the  application  of  this  theory  has  pro- 
duced, and  it  seems  clear  that  if  M.  Merlin 
had  been  more  successful  as  a  promoter,  and 
the  same  theory  had  been  as  rigidly  applied 
to  library  classification  as  it  was  to  palaeon- 
tology, we  should  have  been  much  farther 
advanced  in  the  matter  at  the  present  day. 

1843.    System  of  Munich  Royal  Library. 

Laubmann,  Georg  von.    Plan  und  classifica- 
tion s-normativ   der    K.    Hof-    und    Staats- 

-  bibliothek  zu  Miinchen.  Nebst  einem  An- 
hang  iiber  die  aufstellung  u.  beschreibung 
der  biicher.  (Ms.  sent  Fumagalli.) 
Fumagalli  (1890)  120-2.  12  main  classes 
(given)  with  182  subdivisions.  Each  class 
is  arranged  in  three  sizes,  then  in  general 
alphabetical  Latin  abbreviation  notation,  e.g., 
"Num,  rec."  Recent  Numismatics.  The 
Volg.  eloq.  of  Dante,  tr.  Trissino  i868  is: 
"P.  o.  ital.  8°,  341  gnd." 

1844-1848.    System  of  Ilari. 

Ilari,  Lorenzo.     (La)   Biblioteca  pubblica  di 
Siena  .  .  .    Siena,  1844-48,  7  v.  in  8,  4°. 
Gar  .(186S)  273  (title  and  outline.) 


185 

i847-    System  of  PoMlin  Paris. 

Paris,  Paulin.  De  la  bibliotheque  royale. 
Par.,  1847,  8°. 

Petzholdt   (1866)   58-9   (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  274. 

1849.    System  of  the  Commercial  Lib., 
Hamburg. 

Hoffman.    Die  Commerz-Bibliothek  in  Ham- 
burg.   Hamb.,  1849,  p.  24,  8°. 
Edwards  2  (1859)  Table  2,  no.  xvi. 

1850.    System  of  Cardile. 

Cardile,  Giuseppe.     Studii  fondamentali  della 
scienza  bibliografica.    Palermo,  1850,  8°. 
Gar  (1868)  274  (s  lines.) 

1850.    System  of  Narbone. 

Narbone^  Alessia.  Bibliografia  Sicola  sistem- 
atica,  o  apparato  metodico  alia  storia  letter- 
aria  della  Sicilia.  Palermo,  1850-55,  4  v.; 
also  in:  Rivista  di  scienze  (Palermo)  no. 
22-4. 
Gar  (1868)  274-5  (title.) 

1852.    System  of  Schleiermacher. 

ScHLEiERMACHER,  A.  A.  E.  Bibliographisches 
system  der  gesammten  wissenschaftens- 
kunde  mit  einer  anleitung  zum  ordnen  von 
biblioteken.    Braunschweig,  1847;  also  1852. 


i86 

8° ;  also  in :  Petzholdt.  Neuer  anzeiger 
(1853)  p.  30-32,  205-208. 
Edwards  2  (1859)  806-8,  Table  2,  no.  xviii. ; 
Petzholdt  (1866)  59  (full  title  and  outline)  : 
Gar  (1868)  275;  Grasel  (1890)  153  (out- 
line); Fumagalli  (1890)  113-4;  Brown 
(1898)  48  (outline.) 

Contains  12,915  classes  in  25  main  classes. 
Fum.  gives  25  classes  (A-Z). 

1853.    System  of  the  Leipziger  "Messkatalog." 

Messkatalog.    Lpz.,  1853,  sq.  8°. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  59-60  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  275  (outline.) 

1853.    System  of  Walckenaer, 

Walckenaer,  Baron.  Catalogue  des  livres  de 
[sa]  bibliotheque.  Par.,  1853,  8°;  also  in: 
Serapeum  (1854)  Intelligenzbl.  41-44.  49" 
52,  57-60. 

Petzholdt   (1866)  60-1    (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  275. 

1853.    System  of  Wiener. 

Wiener,  Hermann.  Catalogue  de  la  biblio- 
theque cantonale  Vandoise.  Lausanne, 
1856,  8°;  also  in:  Serapeum  19  (1858)  In- 
telligenzbl. 89-93,  97-101,  105-109,  113-117. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  60-1  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  276. 


i87 
1854.    System  of  Palermo. 

Palermo,  Francesco.  Classazione  dei  libri  a 
stampa  dell'  I.  e  R.  Palatina  in  corrispon- 
denza  di  nn  nuovo  ordinamento  dello  scibile 
umano.  Firenze,  1854,  4°. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  61  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  276-7  (full  outline)  ; 
Fumagalli  (1890)  94-5. 
22  main  classes   with  minute   subdivisions 

(392    under    History.)     Fum.    gives    the    22 

main  classes. 

1855.    System  of  Pilz. 

IPiLZ,    Oscar.]       Wissenschaftskunde.       In: 

.  Rottner,  Albert.     Lehrbuch  der  contorwis- 

senschaft.     Ed.   2.    Lpz.,   1861,  4°,  p.  287- 

334- 

Petzholdt    (1866)    61    (full   title   and   out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  277. 

1855.     System  of  Lehas. 

Maire  (1890)  224-9  (outline)  ;  Libr'y  Jour. 

22  (1897)  253.    A  French  classification  and 

notation  (outline.) 

System  used  in  the  Sorbonne  and  in  the 
Superior  Normal  School  of  Paris.  Its  es- 
sence is  the  abbreviation  notation,  i.e.  T  = 
Theology,  TC  =  Councils,  TPz=  Polemic,  etc. 


i88 

1855.    System  of  the  Palermo   Communal 

Library. 
Indice  topografico  ed  alfabetico  della  biblio- 
teca  del   Comune  di   Palermo.       Palermo, 
1855,  V.  I,  p.  X.,  8°. 
Mira  2  (1862)  203-8.  ' 

1856.    System  of  Tiele. 

[TiELE.]  Catalogue  van  de  bibliothcek  der 
stad  Amsterdam.  Amst.,  1856-58,  4  pt.,  8°. 
Petzholdt  (1866)  61-2  (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  277  (outline.) 

1856.  System  of  Tromel. 

Tromel,     Paul       Allgemeine     bibliographie ; 
monatliches   verzeichniss.       Lpz.,    1856,  8° 
(still  in  use  in  same  periodical.) 
Petzholdt    (1866)    62    (full    title    and   out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  277  (outline.) 

1856.    System  of  Merleker. 

Meeleker^  Karl  Friedrich.  Musologie  .  .  . 
Lpz.,  1857,  8°- 

Petzholdt   (1866)   62-3   (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;  Gar  (1868)  278. 

1857.  System  of  Vincent. 

Vincent,  Benj.     The  classified  catalogue  of 
the  library  of  the  Royal  Institution.    Lond., 
1857. 
Brown  (1898)  49-50  (outline.) 


i89 

1859.    System  of  Edwards. 

Edwards,  Edward.  Memoirs  of  libraries. 
Lond.,  1859,  8°,  V.  2,  p.  814-831 :  Outline 
of  proposed  scheme  of  classification  for  a 
town  library. 

Petzholdt   (1866)   63-4   (full  title  and  out- 
line) ;    Gar    (1868)    278-9    (outline)  ;    The 
Library    9    (1897)    204    (outline);    Brown 
(1898)  50-54  (outline.) 
I.,   Theology;    II.,   Philosophy;    III.,   His- 
tory; IV.,  Politics  and  Commerce;  V.,   Sci- 
ences   and   arts;    VI.,   Literature   and    Poly- 
graphy.      About   five   hundred   classes  given. 
Extreme  notation  "Class  V.,  Div.  i,  §  c,  ii. 
(2)"  =  Organic  Chemistry. 

1859.    System  of  Eyre. 

Eyre,  Samuel.  Book  classing  systematized. 
Lond.,  1843,  f°- 

Edwards  2  (1859)  805-6  (23  classes  in  4 
given)  ;  Petzholdt  (1866)  63  (full  title  and 
outline)  ;  Gar  (1868)  278. 

1859.    System  of  Triibner. 

Trubner,  Nicolas,  comp.  and  ed.  Biblio- 
graphical guide  to  Amer.  literature  .  .  . 
Lond.,  1859,  8°. 

Petzholdt  (1866)  64  (full  title  and  out- 
line); Gar  (1868)  279;  Brown  (1898)  5t 
(outline.) 


190 

i86i.     System  of  Mir  a. 

MiRA,  Giuseppe.     Manuale  teorico-pratico  di 
bibliografia.     Palermo,  1861-62,  2  v.,  2-227-9 
(Elaborate  series  of  folding  tables.) 
Gar  (1868)  279-80. 

1862.     System  of  JVuttig. 

WuTTiG,    G.     Universal-bibliographic.      Lpz., 
1862. 

Petzholdt    (1866)    65    (full    title   and   out- 
line.) 

1863.    System  of  Starrabba. 

Starrabba,  Rafifaele,  baron.     Progetto  di  clas- 
sificazione    di    una    biblioteca.       Palermo, 
1863,  8°. 
Gar  (1866)  280  (rather  full  outline.) 

1863.    System  of  Seizinger. 

Seizinger,  G.     Theorie  und  praxis  der  biblio- 

thekwissenschaft  .  .  .     Dresden,    1863,    8°. 

52-175,  and  on  Notation  175-85. 

Gar  (1868)  279. 

S.  gives  32  main  classes  with  full  and  de- 
tailed subdivisions,  and  gives  under  each  class 
explicit  description  of  what  is  included.  An 
unusual  and  admirable  method. 

1865.    System  of  Gar. 

Gar,  Tommaso.     Letture  di  bibliologia.    To- 
rino, 1868,  8°.    Table  opposite  p.  188. 


191 

1865.    System  of  Lesley. 

Brunet,  Gustav.     In :  Chronique  du  Journal 
gen.  de  I'lmpr.    2  ser.  9  (Paris,  1865.) 
Gar  (1868)  280-1   (good  outline.) 

1866.    System  of  Petzholdt. 

Petzholdt,  J.  [System  of  the  library  at 
Dresden.]  In:  Bibliotheca  Bibliographica. 
Lpz.,  1866,  8°,  p.  62  (under  System  von 
Tromel.) 

1869.    System  of  Techener. 

Techener,  Joseph  Leon.     Repertoire  univer- 
sel  de  bibliographie.     Paris,  1869,  8°. 
Rouveyre  2  (1882)  50-58  (very  detailed.) 

1870.    System  of  the  Athens  National  Li- 
brary. 

Steffenhagen,  E.  Die  neue  ordnung  und 
katalogisirung  der  Athener  Nationalbiblio- 
thek,  in:  Neuer  Anzeiger  (1868)  no.  704; 
(1869)  no.  762;  (1870)  no.  821;  (1874)  no. 
451. 

Grasel  (1890)  386  and  388. 
Alphabetical  system. 

1870.    System  of  W.  T.  Harris. 

Harris,  W.  T.  Catalogue  of  the  St.  Louis 
Public  School  Library.  St.  Louis,  1870,,  S". 
p.  3-16. 


192 

HarriSj    Wm.    T.     Book    classification.     In: 
Jour.  Spec.  Philos.  4  (1870)   114-9. 
Public  Libraries   in   the  U.   S.    i    (Wash., 
1876)  660-2  (outline.) 

The  Library  9  (1897)  205  (outline)  ;  Crun- 
den,  Frederick  M.  Classification  and  cata- 
loguing. Library  i  (1900)  295-8;  Brown 
(1898)  63-5  (outline.) 

1870.     System  of  Manasia. 

Manasxa,  Calogero.  Classificazione  della 
biblioteca  communale  di  Caltanisetta.  Cal- 
tanisetta,  1870. 

Fumagalli  (1890)  98-9  (gives  6  classes.) 
Strict  subject  arr.,  no  distinction  of  size. 

187 1.    System  of  Battezzati. 

Battezzati,  Natale.  Nuovo  sistema  di  cata- 
logo  bibliografico  generale  [referred  to  by 
Dewey  ed.  1876,  not  seen.  System  proposed 
in  the  Bibliografia  Italiana,  nov.  30,  1871,  is 
substantially  that  of  Brunet.] 

1871.    System  of  Forstemann. 

FoRSTEMANN,  E.  W.  Mittheilungen  aus  der 
verwaltung  der  Konigl.  OefFentlichen  Bi- 
bliothek  zu  Dresden  in  den  jahren  1866-1870, 
1871-1875,  1876-1880.  Dresden,  1871,  1876, 
1881. 


193 

Ebert,  F.  A.    Geschichte  und  beschreibung 
der  Dresdner  Bibliothek,  p.  89,  ff. 
Forstemann,    Systematischc,    alphabetische, 
chronoligische  anordnung,  in:  Centralblatt 
fiir  Bibliothekswesen,  i  (1884)  293-303. 
Fumagalli  .(1890)  114-5. 
283     classes.     Notations — the    abbreviated 
Latin  name   (classes  arranged  for  the  most 
part  methodically,  but  some  alphabetically  and 
chronologically.) 

1876.    System  of  the  Madrid  National  Library, 

Breve   noticia   de   la   Biblioteca   Nacional. 
Madrid,  1876. 
Fumagalli  (1890)  125-6. 

1876.    System  of  Dewey. 

Dewey,  Melvil.  Decimal  classification  and 
relativ  index  for  libraries,  clippings,  notes, 
etc.  Fourth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
Boston  Library  Bureau,  1891,  p.  593,  8°. 
Earlier  editions:  ist,  1876;  2d,  1885;  3d, 
1888;  repr.  1894. 

Dewey,  Melvil.  Abridged  decimal  classifi- 
cation and  relativ  index  for  libraries,  clip- 
pings, notes,  etc.  Bost.,  1 1894,]  8°. 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Catalog  of  the  "A.  L. 
A."  Library.  Washington,  1893,  8°,  p,  39 
(outline  100  classes.    The  most  accessible 

13 


194 

illustration  of  the  system,  here  applied  to 
5000  select  volumes.) 

Translations :  Italian,  by  Mondino,  Palermo, 
1895;  by  Benedetti,  Firenze,  1897;  French, 
Bruxelles,  1895,  ( 1000  schedules)  ;  do.  1897 
(tables  generales  abr.)  and  do.  1899  (of  the 
nature  of  a  new  edition  by  the  Institut  in- 
ternat.)  ;  Spanish,  by  Castillo,  Salamanca, 
1897;  German,  by  Junker,  Wien,  1897.  It  is 
impossible  to  attempt  here  anything  like  a 
bibliography  of  the  immense  literature  of 
the  Dewey  system.  References  and  discus- 
sions may  be  found  passim  in  all  the  library 
periodicals — German,  French  and  Italian  as 
well  as  British  and  American.  Following 
are  only  a  few  out  of  very  many  articles. 
For  other  literature  consult  Kephart  in  the 
World's  Congress  Papers,  and  especially  the 
publications  of  the  Institut  international  de 
bibliographie. 

Dewey,  Melvil-  A  decimal  classification  and 
subject  index.  In:  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed., 
Public  Libraries  of  the  U.  S.,  etc.  (Wash., 
1876)  623-48.  Grasel  (1890)  154-5,  387; 
P'umagalli  (1890)  126-128,  etc.  (gives  10  di- 
visions and  full  discussion)  ;  Maire  (1896) 
218-9  (outline)  ;  Brown  (1898)  67-71  (out- 
line) ;  The  Library  7  (1895)  341;  8  (1896) 
335-50  (Jast);  8  (1896)  379-8o;  8  (1896) 
482-90  (Lyster)  ;  9  (1897)  329-39  (Lyster)  ; 


195 

9  (i897)  340-45  (Jast);  9  (1897)  346-9 
(Peddie)  ;  10  (1898)  97-9  (outline).  Li- 
brary Journal  3  (1878)  231  (Dewey) ;  4 
(1879)  117-20;  191-4  (Dewey);  4  (1879) 
149-52  (Lindsay) ;  7  (1882)  127-8  (Lar- 
ned);  10  (1885)  258  (Lane);  11  (1886) 
37-43  (Perkins  and  Schwartz);  11  (1886) 
100-104  (^Dewey)  ;  23  (1898)  18-22  (Wire) ; 
24  (1899)  154  (Dewey). 

Outline. 

000  General  Works. 

010  Bibliography. 

020  Library  Economy. 

030  General  Cyclopedias. 

040  General  Collections. 

050  General  Periodicals. 

060  General  Societies. 

070  Newspapers. 

080  Special  Libraries.     Polygraphy. 

090  Book  Rarities. 

100.  Philosophy. 

no  Metaphysics. 

120  Special  Metaphysical  Topics. 

130  Mind  and  Body. 

140  Philosophical  Systems. 

150  Mental  Faculties.    Psychology. 

160.  Logic. 

170  Ethics. 

180  Ancient  Philosophers. 

190  Modern  Philosophers. 


196 

2<X)  Religion. 

210  Natural  Theology. 

220  Bible. 

230  Doctrinal  Theol.    Dogmatics. 

240  Devotional  and  Practical. 

250  Homiletic.    Pastoral.    Parochial. 

260  Church.    Institutions.    Work. 

270  Religious  History. 

280  Christian  Churches  and  Sects. 

290  Non-Christian  Religioas. 

300  Sociology. 

310  Statistics. 

320  Political  Science. 

330  Political  Economy. 

340  Law. 

350  Administration. 

360  Associations  and  Institutions. 

370  Education. 

380  Commerce  and  Communication. 

390  Customs.    Costumes.    Folk-lore. 

400  Philology. 

410  Comparative. 

420  English. 

430  German. 

440  French. 

450  Italian. 

460  Spanish. 

470  Latin. 

480  Greek. 

490  Minor  Languages. 


197 

50O  Natural  Sciences. 

Sio  Mathematics. 

520  Astronomy. 

530  Physics. 

540  Chemistry. 

550  Geology. 

560  Paleontology. 

570  Biology. 

580  Botany. 

590  Zoology. 

600  Useful  Arts. 

610  Medicine. 

620  Engineering. 

630  Agriculture. 

640  Domestic  Economy. 

650  Communication  and  Commerce 

660  Chemical  Technology. 

670  Manufactures. 

680  Mechanic  Trades. 

690  Building. 

700  Fine  Arts. 

710  Landscape  Gardening. 

720  Agriculture. 

730  Sculpture. 

740  Drawing.    Design.    Decoration. 

750  Painting. 

760  Engraving. 

770  Photography. 

780  Music. 

7go  Amusements. 


198 

8oo  Literature. 

8io  American. 

820  English, 

830  German. 

840  French. 

850  Italian, 

860  Spanish. 

870  Latin. 

880  Greek. 

890  Minor  Languages. 

900  History. 

910  Geography  and  Description. 

920  Biography. 

930  Ancient  History. 

940  Modern.     Europe, 

950  Asia. 

960  Africa. 

970  North  America. 

980  South  America. 

990  Oceanica  and  Polar  Regions. 

The  system  contains  in  its  various  sum- 
maries 10,  100,  1000  and,  roughly  speaking, 
10,000  divisions.  In  the  notation,  however, 
the  main  subject  stops  with  the  use  of  three 
figures,  the  decimal  point  is  then  introduced 
and  further  divisions  are  of  irregular  minute- 
ness of  subdivision,  and  are  regarded  as  be- 
ginning a  new  series  of  classes. 

This  system  begun  in  1873,  first  published 
in  1876,  published  in  fourth  edition  in  1891 


199 

and  reprinted,  and  now  perhaps  shortly  to  be 
published  again  in  new  edition,  has  probably 
had  more  vogfue  than  any  other  bibliograph- 
ical system  ever  published  save  possibly  that 
of  Brunet.  Taken  as  a  whole  and  regarding 
the  substantially  unchanging  form  and  nota- 
tion, among  the  multitude  of  derived  systems 
with  minor  variations,  it  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  no  system  ever  invented  has  been  applied 
to  as  many  libraries  .(probably  at  the  present 
day  several  thousand)  as  this.  In  many  li- 
braries considerable  changes  have  been  made, 
but  in  the  majority  it  remains  practically  un- 
changed. It  is  now  being  adopted  very  gen- 
erally on  the  continent  of  Europe  by  book- 
sellers even  as  well  as  libraries,  and  is  of  late, 
through  its  adoption  by  the  Brussels  InstitHt, 
having  a  very  zealous  propaganda  by  its  con- 
verts, especially  in  France  and  Italy.  Many 
of  the  most  noteworthy  partial  classifications 
of  the  present  day  are  avowedly  founded  on 
and  are  enlargements  of  this  system.  The  sys- 
tem itself  is  supposed  to  be  in  some  way  aa 
adaptation  of  Bacon,  but  the  relation  is  hardly 
to  be  discovered  and  it  really  should  be 
counted  as  independent.  The  reasons  for  its 
deserved  popularity  are  to  be  found:  (i)  in 
an  intelligent  and  consistent  application  of  the 
decimal  notation  (not  new  with  Dewey,  but 
first  by  him  vigorously  and  consistently  ap- 


200 

plied)  ;  (2)  in  the  grasp  of  mnemonic  possi- 
bilities of  this  situation;  (3)  in  the  practical, 
intelligent  and  often  up  to  date  management 
of  the  remoter  subdivisions  of  the,  in  some 
places,  somewhat  artificial,  larger  sub-classes; 
(4)  in  the  fully  printed  schedules  with  their 
"relativ  index,"  which  more  than  anything 
else  is  the  cause  of  the  practicality  of  this 
system  and  its  wide  adoption.  In  other  words, 
its  popularity  has  been  due  to  intelligent  prac- 
tical usefulness. 

Random  Examples  of  the  Dewey  Notation. 

974.4  Ad  I    Adams,  C.  F.    Massachusetts. 
624  Ad  I     Adams,  Henry.     Structural  iron- 
work. 
29s A 3    Avesta.     Zend-Avesta;  tr.    Dar- 
mesteter.    1898. 
372.2  H19    Hauschmann.     Kindergarten  sys- 
tem. 

1879.    System  of  Schwartz. 

Schwartz,  J.  A  mnemonic  system  of  classi- 
fication; Lib,  J.  4  .(1879)  1-7. 
Schwartz,  J.  A  new  classification  and  no- 
tation. In:  Lib.  J.  7  (1882)  148-66. 
Library  Journal  4  (1879)  92  (Schwartz)  7 
(1882)  ;  251  (Bliss)  ;  272  (Schwartz)  ;  10 
(i88s)    2S-7,    77-8,    149-SO,    I74-S,    371-5 


201 

(Schwartz);  257    (Lane);   11    (1886)   8-9 
(Cutter  and  Lane)  ;  9  (Schwartz)  ;  Grasel 
(1890)  387;  Fumagalli  (1890)  131-2;  Brown 
(1898)  65-6  (outline.) 
Kephert,      Horace.        Classification.        In 
.(World's  Library  Congress  Papers)  U.  S. 
Education  Rep.,  1892-3,  p.  874. 
This  gives  a  new  and  presumably  final  form 
of  Schwartz  System,  as  follows:  o.  Fiction;  i. 
Biography;  2,  History  and  geography;  3,  Po- 
litical and  Social  science;  4,  Philosophy  and 
theology;  5,  Natural  science;  6,  Useful  and 
fine  arts;  7,  Language  and  literature;  8,  For- 
eign literature  (in  other  languages  than  Eng- 
lish) ;  9,  Polygraphy. 

1879.    System  of  Cutter. 

Cutter,  C.  A.  Expansive  classification.  Bos- 
ton, C.  A.  Cutter,  1891-3,  160  p.,  8".  (Six 
expansions.  The  seventh,  very  minute,  is 
published  in  part  and  is  very  near  comple- 
tion.) 

Cutter,  C.  A.  Classification  on  the  shelves 
with  some  account  of  the  new  scheme  pre- 
pared for  the  Boston  Athenaeum.  Lib.  J.  4 
(1879)  234-43. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Catalog  of  the  "A.  L. 
A."  Library.  Washington,  1893,  8°,  p.  I47 
(outline  of  about  no  classes.  The  best 
illustration  of  the  system  as  it  is  applied 
here,  complete  to  5000  volumes.) 


202 

Cutter,  C.  A.  The  Expansive  Classification. 
In:  Trans.  Internat.  Library  Congress. 
Lond.  (Lond.,  1898)  84-8. 
Cutter's  Expansive  Classification.  The  Li- 
brary 10  (1898)  98,  286  (outline.) 
Cutter,  Charles  A.  Suitability  of  the  Ex- 
pansive Classification  to  college  and  ref- 
ence  libraries.    In:  Lib.  Journal  24  (1899) 

41-49- 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Dewey  system,  the  lit- 
erature of  the  Cutter  system  is  already  for- 
midable and  is  increasing.    Following  are  1 
few  references: 
Lib.  Jour.  10  (1885)  55-6;  14  (1889)  242-4 
(Bliss) ;    17    (1892)    228    (Kephart) ;   23 
(1898)  18-22  (Wire);  24  (1896)  c.  154-6; 
Fumagalli    (1890)    129-31;  The  Library  g 
(1897)    205-6;   Brown    (1898)    73-7   (Out- 
line.)    Compare  also  literature  in  Kephart's 
World's  Congress  paper. 

Outline  of  Fifth  Expansion  (revised  to  1901). 

A  General  works,  covering  several  classes. 
Includes:  Ad  Dictionaries,  Ae  Encyclo- 
paedias, Ai  Indexes. 

Am  Museums  (General),  An  Notes  and 
Queries,  Ap  Periodicals  (General),  Aq 
Quotations,  Allusions,  etc.,  Ar  Reference 
books.  As  Societies  (General.) 

B  Philosophy;  Br  Religion. 


203 

Includes :  Ba-B£  National  philosophies 
and  systems  of  philosophy;  Bg  Metaphys- 
ics, Ontology,  Bh  Logic,  Bi  Psychology, 
Bm  Moral  philosophy,  Br  Religion;  gen- 
eral works  on  religion  and  the  Supernat- 
ural, Bs  Natural  theology,  Bt  Religions,  Bn 
Superstitions,Folk-lore,  Bz  Local  religions. 

C  Christianity  and  Judaism. 

Includes:  Ca  Judaism,  Cb  Bible,  Cc 
Christianity. 

D  Ecclesiastical  history. 

Includes:  Dd  Church  history  of  coun- 
tries, Dg  Catholic  Church,  Dj  Reformation, 
Dk  Protestants. 

E  Biography. 

F  History. 

Includes:  Universal,  Ancient,  Medieval, 
Modern;  Single  countries  (local  list),  Fc 
Chronology,  Fd  Philosophy  of  history,  Fe 
History  of  civilization  and  culture,  Ff  An- 
tiquities, manners  and  customs,  Fi  Inscrip- 
tions, Fn  Numismatics,  Fs  Chivalry,  Ft 
Knightly  orders,  Fv  Heraldry,  Fw  Peer- 
ages, Nobility. 

G  Geography  and  Travels. 

Includes :  Ge  Mathematical  geography, 
Gs  Surveys,  of  all  sorts,  Gz  Maps. 

H  Social  sciences. 

Includes:  Hb  Statistics,  He  Econopiics, 
Political  econoniv. 


204 

I  Demotics,  Sociology. 

Includes:  lb  Ciime,  Criminal  classes,  Ig 
Charity,  the  Poor,  Ih  Providence,  Ik  Edu- 
cation. 
J  Civics,  Government,  Political  science. 

Includes:  Jx  Law  of  nature  and  of  na- 
tions, Jy  International  law. 
K  Legislation,  etc. 

Includes:   ICa   Law,   Kw   Woman,    Kx 
Children,  Kz  Societies  .not  otherwise  pro  ■ 
vided  for. 
L  Sciences  and  Arts  together. 

Includes:  La  Sciences    (Natural),    Lb 
Mathematics,  Lh  Physics  or  Natural  phil- 
osophy, Lo  Chemistry,  Lr  Astronomy. 
M  Natural  history. 

Includes:  Mb  Microscopy,  Mc  Geology, 
Md  Mineralogy  and  Lithology,  Me  Crys- 
tallography,   Mg    Physiography,    physical 
geography,  Mp  Palaeontology,  Mu  Biology. 
N  Botany. 
O  Zoology. 
Pw  Anthropology  and  Ethnology. 

Includes:  Pwa  Geological  man,  Px  Eth- 
nology  ("primitive  and  historic  man),  Py 
Ethnography  (races  of  men). 
Q  Medicine. 
R  Useful  Arts;  Technology. 

Includes:  Ra  Exhibitions,  Rb  Patents, 
Re  Metric  arts,   Weights  and  measures, 


205 

Rd  Mining,  Re  Metallurgy,  Rf  Agricul- 
ture, Rj  Animal  culture,  Rq  Chemical  tech- 
nology, Rt  Electric  arts,  Ry  Domestic 
economy,  Rz  Food  and  cookery. 

S  Constructive  arts  (Engineering  and  Build- 
ing). 

S  Engineering. 

Includes:  Sg  Building,  Sj  Sanitary  en- 
gineering, SI  Hydraulic  engineering,  St 
Arts  of  transportation  and  communication, 
Su  Roads,  Highways,  Streets,  Sv  Rail- 
roads. 

T  Manufactures  and  Handicrafts. 

U  Art  of  war. 

Includes:  Un  Nautical  arts,  Uu  Ships, 
Shipbuilding,  etc.,  Uv  Lighthouses,  Uw 
Life-saving  service,  Ux  Shipwrecks,  Uy 
Fire  extinction.  Fires. 

V  Recreative  arts.  Sports,  Games,  Festivals. 
Includes:   Vr  Jugglery,   Ventriloquism, 
Natural  magic,  Vs  Gymnastics,   Physical 
education,  Vt  Theatre,  Vv  Music. 

W  Art. 

Includes :  We  Landscape  gardening,  Wf 
Architecture,  Wj  Sculpture,  Wk  Carving 
and  Turning,  Wl  Arts  of  design,  graphic 
arts,  Wm  Drawing,  Wp  Painting,  Wq  En- 
graving, Wr  Photography,  Ws  Decorative 
arts,  Ornament,  Wt  Mosaic,  Wu  Needle- 
work and  textile  decoration.  Wv  Costume 


206 

and  its  sdjuncts,  Ww  Furniture,  Wx  Jew- 
elry, Silver  and  Gold-smithing,  Wy  Metal 
work,  Wz  Bric-a-brac. 
X  Philology. 

Includes:  Xd  Language  in  general,  Xy 
English  language. 
Y  English  and  American  literature. 

Includes:  Yf  Fiction,  Yj  Juvenile  litera- 
ture. Yd  Literature  in  general. 
Z  Book  arts. 

Includes:  Za  Authorship,  Rhetoric,  Zd 
Writing,  Zh  Printing,  Zk  Binding,  Zl  Pub- 
lishing ?nd  Bookselling,  Zn  Private  libra- 
ries, Zp  Public  libraries,  Zu  Bibliography, 
Zw  Subject  bibliography,  Zx  Selection  and 
methods  of  reading,  Zy  Literary  history, 
Zz  Natiojial  bibliography. 
Although   not   published    very    fully   until 
1891,  some  account  of  the  system  was  pub- 
lished as  early  as  1879,  and  the  fifth  expansion 
was  finished  in  1882. 

In  1891-3  it  was  published  fully  in  six  ex- 
pansions, and  the  seventh,  which  will  contain 
about  10,000  subdivisions,  is  now  nearing 
completion.  It  is  distinguished  as  being  the 
most  logical  and  modern  in  its  nomenclature 
of  the  recent  systems.  It  applies  a  consistent 
alphabetical  notation  in  a  manner  which  is  an 
advance  on  all  such  attempts  previously  made. 
It  is  coming  into  use  in  a  good  many  Ameri- 


207 

can  libraries,  and  when  the  final  expansion  is 
finished  and  providcl  with  an  index  will  ui- 
doubtedly  be  more  used  still.  The  painstak- 
ing intelligence  of  subdivision  and  the  full  de- 
scription of  exact  meaning  of  what  is  in- 
tended to  be  included  under  the  subdivision 
are  of  the  highest  order,  both  of  scholarship 
and  method.  The  author's  unsparing  indus- 
try and  unwearied  enthusiasm  for  his  scien- 
tific aim  and  the  welfare  of  libraries  have 
produced  a  really  scientific  (though  of  course 
not  perfect  or  final)  work  cf  high  value,  the 
appreciation  of  which  on  the  part  of  others 
is  all  the  more  cordial  because  of  the  modesty 
and  unaflFected  altruism  of  its  author. 

The  proper  understanding  of  the  substantial 
excellences  of  this  system  really  requires  a 
presentation  of  Cutter's  admirable  "Local 
list,"  now  used  with  many  other  systems  as 
well,  and  the  "Cutter  author  number,"  now 
used  with  most  systems,  but  the  limits  of  the 
method  chosen  for  this  appendix  forbid. 

Random  Examples  of  the  Cutter  Notation. 

F844.Adi    Adams,  C.  F.    Massachusetts. 
SE.Adi    Adams,  Henry.    Structural  iron- 
work. 
BZEP.A3    Avesta.     Zend-Avesta;   tr.   Dar- 
mesteter.    1898. 
IU.H19    Hauschmann.    Klindergarten  sys- 
tem. 


208 

1880.    System  of  Allibone. 

Allibone,  S.  Aug.    A  critical  dictionary  of 
English  literature  and  British  and  Ameri- 
can authors.    Philadelphia,  1880,  3  v.,  8°. 
Maire  (1896)  217  (gives  outline  of  names 
in  index.) 

This,  as  quoted  by  Maire,  is  not  properly 
a  system  —  or  rather  it  is  merely  the  alpha- 
betical subject  system.  Allibone  does,  how- 
ever, in  introd.  adopt  from  Putnam's 
World's  progress  the  classification  "Imagina- 
tion, Fact,  Speculative  and  Scientific." 

1880.  System  of  Lorenz. 

LoRENZ.    Catalogue   general    de   la   librairie 
franjaise.      Tableau    systematique    ou    r6- 
sume  des  rubriques  de  la  table  des  matieres. 
v.  8  (Paris,  1880)  673-84. 
Maire  (1896)  210-11  (outline.) 

1881.  System  of  Perkins. 

Perkins,  Fred.  C.  San  Francisco  Catalogu- 
ing for  public  libraries.  A  manual  of  the 
system  used  in  the  San  Francisco  Free  Pub- 
lic Librarj'.  San  Francisco,  1884,  p.  40. 
Perkins,  Fred.  B.  A  rational  classification 
of  literature  for  shelving  and  cataloguing 
books  in  a  library.  Revised  edition.  San 
Francisco.  1882.    S7+4  p.  8°. 


209 

Dewey,  Melvil.    Mr.  Perkins'  classification. 

Lib.  Jour.  7  (1882)  60-2. 

Fumagalli    (1890)    135    (5572,   in  69,  in  8 

classes.    8  given  by  F.)  ;  Brown  (1898)  77-9 

(outline. ) 

For  other  references  see  Kephart,  p.  895. 

1881.  System    of    the    Italian    Chamber    of 

Deputies. 

La  biblioteca  della  Camera  dei  Deputati  nel 
dicembre  dell'anno  1881. 
Notizie  pubblicate  per  cura  della  commis- 
sione  della  Biblioteca.    Roma,  1881. 
Fumagalli  (1890)  99  ("A  few  large  class- 
es.") 

1882.  System  of  the  Berlin  Royal  Library. 
Uebersicht   e'er   systematischen   ordnung   der 

Koniglichcn  Bibliothek  zu  Berlin,  Juli,  1882. 
Fumagalli  (1890)  11 1-2. 
177  main  classes. 

T882,    System  of  Smith. 

Smith,  Lloyd  P.  The  classification  of  books. 
In:  Lib.  J.  7  (1882)  172-174. 
Smith,  Lloyd  P.  On  the  classification  of 
books.  A  paper  read  before  the  American 
Library  Association,  May,  1882.  Bost, 
1882,  70  p.  8°. 

Fumagalli  (1890)  134-5;  Brown  (1898)  79- 
80  (outline.) 

14 


210 

A,  Religion;  E,  Jurisprudence;  I,  Sciences 
and  Arts;  O,  Belles-Lettres ;  U,  History;  Y, 
Bibliography  and  the  history  of  literature. 

1883.    System  of  Edmonds. 

Edmands^  John.    New  system  of  classification, 
etc.    Phila ,  1883,  29  p.  8°. 
Lib.  Jour.  4  (1879)  38-40,  42-4,  56.    Brown 
(1898)  82. 

1883.    System  of  Steffenhagen. 

Steffenhagen,   Emil.     Ueber    normalhohen 
fur  biichergeschosse.     Eine  bibliothektech- 
nische  erorterung,  mit  einem  anhange,  ent- 
haltend    den    aufstellungsplan    der    Kieler 
Universitats-Bibliothek.     Kiel,  1885. 
Steffenhagen,   E.     Ordnungsprincipien   der 
Universitats-Bibliothek     Kiel.       Fiir    den 
dienstlichen     gebrauch      zusammengestellt. 
Als  manuskript  gedruckt.    Burg,  1885. 
Steffenhagen,  E.    Die  neue  aufstellung  der 
Universitats-Bibliothek  zu  Kiel.  Eine  denk- 
schrift  zur  orientirung.       Als  manuskript 
vervielfaltigt.    Kiel,  1883. 
Steffenhagen,   E.     Standorts-Tabelle    fiber 
die   neue   aufstellung   der   Universitats-Bi- 
bliothek zu  Kiel.    Kiel,  1884. 
Fumagalli  (1890)  1 19-120. 
"Scrupulously  systematic."    25  main  classes 
given  by  Fumagalli,  124  sub-classes.    Three- 
form  series. 


211 

1883.    System  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Libraries. 

Grassauer^  Ferdinand.       Handb.   f.   oesterr 
,  .  .    Bibliotheken.    Wien,  1883,  p.  133,  196. 
Fumagalli  (1890)  123-4. 
Rules  call  for  two  main  principles :  .(a)  logi- 
cal by  subjects,  (b)  with  the  object  of  "hav- 
ing the  library  preserve  a  pleasing  exterior 
appearance." 

1883.    System  of  the  Public  Libraries  of 
France. 

Robert^  Ulysse.  Recueil  de  lois,  decrets,  or- 
donances,  arretes,  circlaires,  etc.,  concer- 
nant  les  bibliotheques  publiques,  commu- 
nales,  universitaires,  scolaires  et  populaires. 
Paris,  1883,  p.  121. 
Fumagalli  (1890)  102-3. 
Three  sizes,  accessions  order,  folios  and 
over  1-9999,  quartos,  etc.,  10000-29,999,  oc- 
tavos and  under  30,000  sq. 

1884.    System  of  the  Mazarin  Library. 

Rapport  de  M,   Alfred    Franklin,    adminis- 

trateur   de  la  bibliotheque   Mazarine,   etc., 

in:  Bulletin  des  Bibl.  (1884)  25. 

Fumagalli   (1890)    101-2   (Classification  by 

subjects  long  given  up.    Now  strictly  (i)  by 

three  sizes;  (2)  order  of  accession  in  each.) 


212 

1884.  Paris  Arsenal  Library. 

Rapport  de  M.  Edouard  Thierry,  conserva- 
teur-administrateur  de  la  bibliotheque  de 
I'Arsenal,  etc.,  in :  Bulletin  des  Bibl.  ( 1884) 
172. 

Fumagalli   (1890)   102.     Originally  classed, 
overcrowded,  then  by  order  of  accession. 

1885.    System  of  the  St.  Genevieve  Library. 

Rapport  de  M.  Lavoix,  administrateur  de  la 
bibliotheque  Sainte-Genevieve,  etc.,  in : 
Bulletin  des  Bibl.  (1885)  136. 
Fumagalli  (1890)  102  (outline.  28  classes 
much  the  same  as  those  of  Bib.  Nat.  Since 
1875  arranged  in  each  class  in  the  order  of 
accession.)     Maire  (1896)  230-31. 

1885.    System  of  the  Heidelberg  Univ.  Lib. 

Zangemeister,  Karl.  System  des  Real-Kata- 
logs  der  Universitats-Bibliothek  Heidelberg. 
Heidelberg,  1885. 

Fumagalli  (1890)  1 18-19  (outline.) 
System    with    17   main   classes    (given   by 
Fumagalli).    Dates  from   1825  but  minutely 
subdivided    (history,   e.g.   227    subdivisions) 

by  Z. 

1885.  System  of  Brownbill. 

Brovvnbill,  John.  Science  and  art :  a  theory 
of  library  classification.  In :  Lib.  Chron.  3 
(1886)  133-136. 


213 

I.,  Theology;  II.,  Moral  sciences  (incl. 
Language,  Philosophy,  Sociology,  History) ; 
III.,  Physical  sciences;  IV.,  Literature;  V., 
Painting;  VI.,  Music;  cf.  outline,  p.  136. 

1885.    System  of  Ogle. 

Ogle,  J.  J.     Outline  of  a  new  scheme  of  clas- 
sification   applicable    to    books.     In:    Lib. 
Chron.  2  (1885)  161-166. 
A,  Word  knowledge;  B,  Religious  knowl- 
edge; C,  Social  knowledge;  D,  Mind  knowl- 
edge ;  E,  Art  knowledge  (Literary)  ;  F,  Art 
knowledge  (Non-Literary)  ;  G,  Nature  knowl- 
edge (Non-Biological)  ;  H,  Nature  knowledge 
(Biological);    J,    Industrial    knowledge;    K, 
General  knowledge. 

1886.    System  of  the  Cologne  Public  Library. 

Keysser  (Adolph.)  Die  Stadtbibliothek  in 
Koln.  Ihre  organization  und  verwaltung, 
Beitrage  zu  ihrer  geschichte.  Koln,  1886. 
(Veroffentlichungen  der  Stadtbibliothek  in 
Koln,  I  Heft.) 

Fumagalli  (1890)  112  ■(gives  14  classes 
(A-0).  There  are  311  sub-classes.  Under 
each  subdivision  strict  accessions  order  with- 
out regard  to  size.) 

1886.    System  of  the  Sion  College  Library. 

MiLMAN,  W.  H.  Order  of  the  classification 
of  Sion  College  Library,  London.     Lond., 


2X4 

R.  Clay  &  Sons,  1886,  54  p. ;  also  in :  Lib. 
Chron.  3  .(1886)  183  (outline.) 
Dewey  Classification  at  Sion  College.    The 
Library  8  (1896)  350-375  (outline.) 
Brown  (1898)  71-3  (outline.) 
The  system  is  a  nominal  Dewey  much  ad- 
justed. 

1886.    System  of  the  Frankfurt  City  Library. 

Systematische  eintheilung  der   Stadtbiblio- 
thek  zur  Frankfurt  am  Main,  1886. 
Fumagalli   (1890)    115-6   (250  main  classes 
in  14  main  classes   (given  by  Fum.)   Ab- 
breviation notation.) 

1888.    System  of  the  " Bihliothique  Cardinal." 

Catalogue  methodique  et  raisonne.      Paris, 
1888,  8°. 
Maire  (1896)  248  (outline.) 

1888.    System   of  Bodleian  Library. 

The  Bodleian  Library  in  1882-7.    A  report 
from  the  Librarian  (Edward  B.  Nicholson) 
published   by   permission   of  the   Curators 
Oxford,  Dec,  1888. 
Fumagalli  .(1890)   108-10. 

1888.    System   of  Luigi  Frati   (Bibl.  Muni- 
cipale^  Bologna). 

Frati,  Luigi.     Opere  della  bibliografia  bolo- 
gnese  che  si  conservano  nella  biblioteca  mu- 


215 

nicipale   di   Bologna  classificate.     Bologna, 

1888,  V.  2. 

Fumagalli  (1890)  97-8. 

The  published  vol.  contains  class  6  of  the 
Bologna  Municipal  Library.  It  has  59  sub- 
classes, which  are  in  turn  greatly  subdivided. 
The  remaining  5  main  classes,  (i)  Sacra, 
(2)  Storica,  (3)  Letteraria,  (4)  Scientifica, 
(S)  Artistica,  have  227  subdivisions.  The 
notation  seems  to  refer  to  a  fixed  location, 
and  is  made  up  of  first  an  Arabic  numeral, 
then  a  letter,  then  a  Roman  numeral,  and 
finally  another  Arabic  numeral  (thus,  2  a  iv. 

3). 

1888.    System  of  Hartwig. 

[Hartwig,  Otto.]  Schema  des  realkatalogo 
der  Koniglichen  Universitatsbibliotek  zu 
Halle  a.  S.  Leipzig,  1888,  p.  350,  8°. 
(Beihefte  zum  Centralblatt  fiir  Bibliotheks- 
wesen  IIL) 

Fumagalli  (1890)  1 16-17;  Grasel  (1890) 
153  (outline)  ;  Brown  .(1898)  57-9  (outline.) 
A,  Book  sciences  and  General  works;   B, 

Universal  Philology  and  Oriental  languages; 

C,  Classical  Philology;  D,  Modern  Philology; 

E,  Fine  Arts;  F,  Philosophy;  G,  Pedagogy; 

H,  Culture  history  and  universal  Science  of 

Religion;  I,  Theology;  K,  Jurisprudence;  L, 

Political    science;    M,    Auxiliary    historical 


2l6 

sciences;  N,  History;  O,  Geography;  P,  Gen- 
eral works  of  Natural  Science  and  Mathe- 
matical sciences;  Q,  Physics  and  Meteorol- 
ogy; R,  Chemistry;  S,  Natural  sciences;  T, 
Agriculture,  Forestry,  Technology;  U,  Med- 
icine. 

This  Hartwig  or  Halle  system  is  noteworthy 
for  the  excellent  logic  of  its  subdivisions, 
although,  as  a  universal  system,  the  minute 
subdivision  of  law  is  disproportionate.  The 
notation  is  very  intricate,  and  one  would  think 
almost  impracticable  for  libraries. 

1889.    System  of  Fletcher. 

Fletcher,  W.  I.  Public  libraries  in  Amer- 
ica. Bost.,  1894,  12° ;  Library  classification, 
Bost.,  1894,  32  p.  8°. 

Fletcher,  W.  I.  Library  classification  the- 
ory and  practice  III.  In:  Lib.  J.  14  (1889) 
1 13-16  (full  outline.) 

The  Library  6  (1894)  157  (Rev.  of  "Li- 
brary Classification,"  1894,  outline.)  The  Li- 
brary 9  (1897)  206  (outline.)  Library  Jour- 
nal 14  (1889)  244-5  (Bliss)  ;  Brown  (1898) 
80-82  (outline.) 

Fiction;  Juvenile;  1-13.  English  and 
American  literature;  i5-7S-  History;  81-2. 
Biography;  85-120.  Voyages  and  Travels; 
125-172.  Science;  179-240.  Useful  arts;  245- 
277.     Fine  arts;  279-350.     Political  and  So- 


217 

cial;  352-416.  Philosophy  and  Religion;  421- 
456.  Language  and  literature;  461-8.  Refer 
ence  books. 

This  is  of  mediiim  expansion,  and  is  in- 
tended to  be  very  simple  and  untechnical.  It 
is  not  intended  to  come  in  competition  with 
the  more  thorough  and  scientific  systems. 

1889.    System  of  ihe  Strassburg  University 
Library. 

Fumagalli  (1890)  122  (Direct  communica- 
tion.) 

12  main  classes  (given  by  Fumagalli), 
about  600  subdivisions.  Example  of  nota- 
tion "Eb,  xlii.,  Italienisch"  +  form  and  no. 

1889.    System   for   the   Public   Libraries   of 
France.    .(2) 

Bulletin  des  bibliotheques  (1889)   1 13-183. 

Fumagalli  (1890)  104-6. 

22  classes,  A-V,  each  divided  into  four 
sizes ;  each  series  either  ( 1 )  by  the  order  of 
Brunet,  or  (2)  alphabetically,  or  (3)  in  the 
case  of  history,  chronologically.  Fum.  thinks 
this  author  is  rather  doctrinaire  than  practical, 
but  gives  the  brief  outline. 

1890.    System  of  Delisle. 

Delisle,  Leopold.     Instructions  elementaires 
et  techniques  pour  la  mise  et  le  maintien  en 


2l8 

ordre  des  livres  d'ltne  bibliotheque.     Lille, 

1890,  8°,  p.  7,  sq. 

Maire  (1896)  220-3  (outline.) 

1890.    System  of  Grassauer  {Vienna  Univer- 
sity Library). 

Fumagalli  (1890)  123  (Direct  information.) 
99  main  classes. 

1890.    System    of   the   Imperial   Library    of 
St.  Petersburg. 

Fumagalli  (1890)  125.  (18  main  classes. 
"In  the  individual  classes  the  books  are  ar- 
ranged with  sole  regard  to  the  size  of  the 
volumes.") 

1890.  System  of  the  Swedish  Public  Libraries. 

SvERiGES  offentliga  bibliotek  Stockholm.    Up- 
sala.   Lund.   Goteborg.    Accessions-Katalog 
no.  4  par  Dahlgren.     Stockholm,  1890,  8". 
Maire  (1896)  220  (outline.) 

1890.    System  of  Bonazzi. 

BoNAzzi,  G.    Schema  di  catalog©  systematico 
per  le  biblioteche.    Parma,  1890,  no  p.  8'. 
Bliss,  R.     Bonazzi's  scheme  for  a  classed 
catalogue,  Lib.  J.  16  (1891)  5-8;  19  (1894) 
c  69  (outline)  ;  Brown  (1898)  59  (outline.) 


219 

Outline. 
A,  General  works ;  B,  Ethnic  religions,  myth- 
ology, etc.;  C,  Christian  religion;  D,  Juris- 
prudence; E,  Sociology;  F,  Philology;  G. 
Literature;  H,  Philosophy;  I,  Science,  phys 
ical  and  mathematical;  K,  Chemistry;  L, 
Natural  science;  M,  Medicine;  N,  Surgery; 
O,  Pharmacy;  P,  Veterinary  science;  Q, 
Agriculture;  R,  Industry  and  manufactures; 
S,  Fine  arts;  T,  Music;  U,  Recreative  arts, 
sport,  theatre;  V,  Geography;  W,  Voyages 
and  travels;  X,  Archaeology;  Y,  Biography; 
Z,  History. 

1891.    System  of  Sonnenschein. 

SoNNENSCHEiN.  The  best  books.  2d  ed. 
Lond.,  1891,  4° ;  also  A  reader's  guide. 
Suppl.  to  the  Best  books,  Lond.,  1895,  4°. 
Maire  (1896)  218  (outline)  ;  Brown  (1898) 
54-7  (outline).  A,  Theology;  B,  Mythol- 
ogy and  Folklore;  C,  Philosophy;  D,  So- 
ciety ;  E,  Geography,  Ethnology,  Travel  and 
Topography;  F,  History;  G,  Archaeology; 
H,  Science  and  Medicine;  I,  Arts  and 
Trades;  K,  Literature  and  Philology. 
Eleven  main  classes,  122  sub-classes  and 
1221  divisions,  each  of  which  is  usually  split 
up  into  from  two  to  a  dozen  or  more  sub- 
jects variously  arranged.  It  is  the  best  ex- 
ample of  modern  bibliographical  (as  dis- 
tinguished from  bibliothecal)  classification. 


iSqi.    System  of  G.  W.  Harris. 

Harris^  G.  W.  The  classification  of  the  Cor- 
nell University  Library.  Lib.  Jour.  i6 
(1891)  138-9. 

Lib.  Jour.  19  (1894)  c  69  (Nelson.  Out- 
line) ;  Kephart.  Classification  (1895)  872 
(outline.) 

1891.  System  of  Teubner. 

Teubner.    Verlags-Katalog,  1824-91,  8°. 
Maire  (1896)  216-7  (outline.) 

1892.  System  of  Ottino. 

Ottino,  Giuseppi.  Manuale  di  bibliografia. 
Milano,  1892,  16°,  p.  138-9. 

1894.    System  of  Rowell. 

RowELL,  J.  C.  Classification  of  books  in  the 
library.  Berkeley,  Cal.,  1894,  49  p.  8". 
(Univ.  of  Cal.  Lib.  bulletin  no.  12.) 
Kephart.  Classification  (1895)  880  (out- 
line); Cutter,  C.  A.,  in:  Lib.  J.  20  (1895) 
214-5- 
Outline. 

A  Bibliography. 
B  Dictionaries. 
C  Periodicals. 
1-15  Philosophy. 
16-51  Religion. 


221 

52  Biography. 
54  Geography. 
54-255  Geography  and  history. 
256-287  Politics;  administration, 
289-296  Law. 

300  Social  science. 
315-332  Economics. 

333  Science. 
337-356  Mathematics. 
357-37^  Astronomy. 

372  Physics;  mechanics. 

401  Civil  engineering. 

425  Natural  history. 

431  Geology. 

440  Paleontology. 

442  Botany. 

461  Zoology. 

480  Medicine. 

506  Industrial  arts. 

507  Agriculture. 
523  Chemistry. 

536  Chemical  technology. 

554  Mining. 

580  Manufactures. 

590  Building  arts. 

600  Architecture. 

610  Domestic  economy. 

613  Recreation. 

617  Business. 

623  Art  of  war. 


222 

640  Esthetics. 
Fine  arts. 
999  Languages  and  literature. 

One  of  the  best  combinations  of  the  scien- 
tific and  practical  in  medium  expansion  among 
modern  systems.  The  notation  is,  however. 
the  rather  discredited  integral  system. 

1894.    System  of  Quinn-Brown, 

QuiNN,  J,  H.,  &  Brown,  J.  B.  Classification 
of  books  for  libraries  in  which  readers  are 
allowed  access  to  the  shelves.  The  Library 
7  (1895)  75-82. 

Wire,  Geo.  E.,  in:  Lib.  J.  23  .(1898)  c  19 
(outline) ;  Brown  (1898)  59-61  (outline.) 

1895.    Syst(?m  of  the  Vienna  Royal  Library. 

WiEN,  K.  K.     HofDibliothek.     Instructionen 
fiir  die  Katalogs  Arbeiten.  i  Heft.  1895. 
Wire,  Geo.  E.,  in:  Lib.  J.  23   (1898)   c  19 
("6  p.  and  full  subject  index.") 

1896.    System  of  the  French  Institute. 

Bibliotheque  de  I'lnstitut. 
Maire  (1896)  229-30  (outline.) 

1896.    System  of  French  Lycees. 

Bibliotheques  des  Lycees  (Proposed.) 
Maire  (1896)  246-8  (outline.) 


223 

1896.    System  of  the  Paris  Museum  of  Nai- 
ural  History. 

Bibliotheque  du  Museum  d'histoire  Naturelle. 
Maire  (1896)  231-3  (outline.) 

1896.    System  of  the  Paris  Free  Libraries 

Bibliotheques  popuiaires  de  Paris  .(Proposed 
system.) 
Maire  (1896)  245-6  (outline.) 

1896.    System  of  the  Parts  City  Library. 

Bibliotheque  de  la  ville  de  Paris  (Musee  Cas- 
navalet.) 
Maire  (1896)  235-44  (outline.) 

1896.    System  of  the  Paris  Municipal  Library. 

Bibliotheque   administrative   de   la    ville    de 
Paris  (Hotel  de  Ville.) 
Maire  (1B96)  233-^  (outline.) 

1898.    System  of  Brown. 

Brown,  James  D.  Manual  of  Library  classi- 
fication and  shelf  arrangement.  Lond , 
1898,  12°,  p.  97-160. 

Brown's     adjustable     classification,     1896, 
641.     (Reprint  from  Manual.) 
Wire,  G.  E.    Review  of  (Brown's)  Manual 
of  Classification.   .In:  Lib.  J.  24  (1899)  I2t 
(outline.) 


224 

A,  Science;  B,  (Jseful  arts;  C,  Fine  arts 
and  Recreative  arts;  D,  Social  science;  E, 
Philosophy  and  Religion;  F,  History  and 
Geography;  G,  Biography  and  Correspond- 
ence; H,  Language  and  literature;  J,  Poe- 
try and  the  Drama;  K,  Prose  fiction;  L, 
Misc. 

This  system  is  quite  different  from  and  not 
to  be  confused  with  the  Quinn-Brown  system 
of  1894.  It  is  of  the  medium  expansion  and 
practical  order,  and  belongs  say  between  the 
systems  of  Rowell  and  Fletcher  rather  than 
with  Dewey  and  Cutter.  It  is  said  to  have 
some  vogue  m  England.  The  book  as  a  whole 
is  the  best  short  monograph  on  library  classi- 
fication. 

1898.    System  of  Dieserud. 

DiE.SERUD,  J.  Suggestions  towards  an  im- 
proved decimal  classification.  In :  Lib.  J.  23 
(1898)  607-9  .(outline.) 

1901.    System  of  the  Princeton  University 
Library. 

Location  of  books  in  the  Library  of  Prince- 
ton University.    Princeton,  N.  J.,  1901,  12°. 

Outline. 

0000-0999.      GENERAL   WORKS. 

0000  Miscellaneous. 

0100  Book  sciences  general.    Writing. 


225 

0200      Printing. 

0300      Publishing  and  New  book  trade. 

0400      Old  book  trade.     Auction  trade. 

0500      Library  science. 

0600  History  of  libraries:  Ancient  and 
miediaeval,  American,  European. 

0700  History  of  libraries:  Asiatic,  African, 
Australian,  etc.  Reading.  Valua- 
tion and  criticism.  Best  books. 
Universal  bibliographies. 

0800  Public  documents. 

0900  General  periodicals.  Proceedings.  News- 
papers. Collections.  Essays. 
Sources  and  history  of  learning. 
Encyclopiedias.  Quotations  and  ana. 

1000- 1999.      HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

1000  General  geography,  history,  genealogy 
and  biography.    American  history. 

iioo  American  history,  local,  Alabama — 
New  York. 

1200  American  history,  local.  New  York 
— Wyoming.  American  heraldry, 
genealogy  and  biography.  Canada 
and  Newfoundland. 

1300  Latin  America:  Mexico,  Central  Ameri- 
ca,   West    Indies,    South    America. 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  islands. 
JSJ?-  1400  Europe,  general.    British  Islands. 

1500      Western  and  Central  Europe. 

15 


226 

l6oo  Northern  and  Eastern  Europe.  Medi- 
terranean. 

1700  Asia. 

1800  Africa.    Indian  Ocean. 

1900  Australasia.  Melanesia.  Pacific  Ocean. 
Polar  regions. 

2000-2999.      LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 

2000  General.  Artificial,  primitive  and  inde- 
pendent languages. 

2100  Dravidian,  Malayo-Polynesian  and  Ha- 
mitic  languages. 

2200  General   Orientalia.     Semitic  languages. 

2300  Indo-European  languages. 

2400  New  Indian.  Avestan.  Persian.  Ar- 
menian. 

2500  Classical  languages;  general,  Greek 
authors,  general,  and  Achilles  Tatius 
to  Aristoteles. 

2600      Greek  authors :  Aristoxenus — Longus. 

2700  Greek  authors :  Lucianus  —  Zosimus. 
Modern  Greek  and  Albanian  litera- 
ture. 

2800  Latin  authors,  general,  and  Accius — 
Pervigilium  Veneris. 

2900  Latin  authors:  Petronius — Vitruvius. 
Modern  Latin  writers.  Literary  his- 
tory. Msrthology.  History.  Geog- 
raphy'. Chronology.  Metrology, 
Antiquities.     Biography. 


22^ 

3000-3999-      MODERN     LANGUAGES    AND    LITERA- 
TURE 

3000  General.    Slavonic.    Celtic. 

3100  Romance. 

3200      French. 

3300  Teutonic. 

3400      German. 

3500  Anglo-Saxon.    English,   general. 

3600      English,    single   authors:    A'Becket — 

Cross. 
3700      Cross — ^James. 
3800      James — Price. 
3900      Prime — Zangwill. 

4000-4999.     ARTS. 

4000  Oratory. 

4100  Theater. 

4200  Games,  sports  and  pastimes. 

4300  Music,  general,  and  History  of  Music  in 
America — Germany. 

4400  History  of  Music:  Holland  —  Polar. 
Musical  texts. 

4500  Graphic  arts. 

4600  National  art  history.  Prehistoric  art. 
Ancient  art. 

4700  Greek  and  Roman,  Christian,  Byzan- 
tine, Mediaeval  and  Romanesque  art. 

4800  Gothic,  Mohammedan,  XIV-XVIIl 
century  art. 

4900      Modern  art. 


228 
5000-5999-      THEOLOGY. 

5000  General.  Comparative,  Primitive,  Chi- 
nese, Indo-European,  Egyptian,  Jew- 
ish and  Mohammedan  religions. 
Natural  theology  and  philosophical 
religions. 

5100  Biblical  philology,  general.  Texts  and 
translations. 

5200  Commentaries  and  literature  of  spe- 
cial books. 

5300  Biblical  geography,  history,  biography, 
theology,  philosophy,  science  and  an- 
tiquities. 

5400  Church  history,  general.  Missions,  gen  - 
eral. 

5500      National  church  history  and  biography. 

5600      Denominational  history. 

5700  Systematic  theology,  general.  Apolo- 
getics. Polemics.  Irenics.  Dog- 
matics. 

5800  Christian  ethics.  Experiential  theolo- 
gy.   Devotional  theology.    Ascetics. 

5900  Practical  theology.  Polity.  Law.  Min- 
isterial theology.  Liturgies.  Homi- 
letics.  Catechetics.  Polemics. 
Evangelistics. 

6000-6999.      PHILOSOPHY     AND     EDUCATION. 

6000  Philosophy,  general  and  metaphysical, 
ancient,  modern — British. 


229 

6ioo      British — Belgian. 

6200      Scandinavian  — .    Reality.    Knowledge 

(including  Epistemology  and  Logic.) 

Esthetics. 
6300      Ethics. 
6400      Psychology. 
6500  Education,  general. 
6600  History  of  education :  ancient,  mediaeval, 

modern,  American;  Alabama — New 

York. 
6700      New  York — Atlantic  islands. 
6800      European. 
6900      Asiatic,  African,  etc. 

7000-7999.      SOCIOLOGY. 

7600  Sociology,  general.  Relationships.  As- 
sociations. Customs  and  classes. 
Crime,  charities  and  correction. 

7100  Economics,  general.  Production  and 
consumption.  Land  and  improve- 
ments.   Labor.    Capital. 

7200  Population.  Property.  Exchange. 
Credit  and  banking.  Circulation 
and    transportation    (commerce). 

730c  Distribution,  general.  Rent.  Labor 
and  wages.    Capital.    Insurance. 

7400      Public  finance.    Socialism. 

7500  Politics. 

7600  Jurisprudence,  general.    Roman  law; 
American,  general. 


230 

7700  Local  law,  America:  Alabama — North 
Carolina. 

7800  North  Dakota — Wyoming.  Other  lo- 
cal to  Great  Britain. 

7900      France — Polar  regions. 

8000-8999.      NATURAL  SCIENCES. 

8000  General :  museums.  Scientific  travels, 
general. 

8100  Mathematics. 

8200  Physics. 

8300  Chemistry. 

8400  Astronomy. 

8500  Physical  Geography.  Meteorology.  Min- 
eralogy.    Geology.     Palaeontology. 

8600  Biology,  general.  Evolution.  General 
fauna  and  flora. 

8700      Botany. 

8800      Zoology. 

8900  Anthropology.     Hygiene.     Medicine. 

9000-9999.      TECHNOLOGY. 

9000  General-.  Exhibitions.  History.  Pa*:- 
encs  and  ;nvention.s.  Applied  math- 
ematics and  physics.  Metrology. 
Navigation.    Geodesy  and  surveying. 

9100  Building,  general.  Materials.  Build- 
ings. Tunnels.  Bridges,  roads  and 
railroads.  Ships,  etc.  Hydraulic 
engineering.     Sanitary  engineering. 


231 

9200  Mechanical  (power)  engineering,  gen- 
eral. Tools.  Production.  Trans- 
mission. Forms :  gravity,  human, 
animal,  water,  air,  heat  and  explo- 
sives, electricity. 
9300  Mining  and  metallurgy. 
9400  Agriculture. 

9500  Horticulture.  Arboriculture  (forestry.) 
9600  Animal  culture  (breeding)  and  Piscicul- 
ture (including  fisheries). 
9700  Manufactures. 
9800  Chemical  trades  and  industries. 
9900  Social  arts,  general.  Domestic,  social, 
commercial,  public  (military  and 
naval). 
This  Princeton  University  Library  system 
is  worth  giving  here  to  illustrate  the  differ- 
ence between  the  practical  and  the  theoretical. 
This  may  be  done  by  comparing  it  with  the 
final  outline  under  the  theoretical  systems, 
which  is  its  philosophical  basis.  The  nota- 
tion is  decimal  with  a  four  figure  base,  the 
author  having  started  with  the  observation  that 
many  of  the  modern  systems  include  some 
10,000  or  more  subdivisions.  It  observes  the 
mnemonic  features  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, but  not  as  far  as  might  perhaps  have 
profitably  been  done.  It  was  constructed 
rather  as  a  system  for  a  special  library,  than 
as  a  general  system,  but  is  perhaps  not  wholly 


232 

without   usefulness   for   libraries   of   similar 
character. 

Random  Examples  of  the  Princeton  Notation. 

1150.114    Adams,  C.  F.    Massachusetts. 

9134. 1 14    Adams,  Henry.     Structural  iron- 
work. 
2429.2898    Avesta.    Zend-Avesta;  tr.  Darme- 
steter.    1898. 

6547438    Hauschmann.     Kindergarten    sys- 
tem. 

VI.      SYSTEMS  OF  CURRENT  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL 
PERIODICALS. 

These  systems,  representing  as  they  do  the 
most  familiar  classification  usage  of  the  pres- 
ent time,  cannot  well  be  neglected  by  the  stu- 
dent of  classification.  Conditions  of  space 
forbid  giving  the  outlines  in  detail  here,  but 
they  are  most  of  them  readily  accessible,  and 
quite  a  number  of  outlines  are  given  in 
Maire.  Some  of  those  oftenest  met  are  the 
following : 
BiPLiOGRAFiA  ITALIANA.     See  Bolletino  delle 

pubb.  ital. 
BiBLiOGRAPHiE  DE  Belgique.    Joumal  officiel 

de  la  Librairie.    Bruxelles,  Table  systema- 

tique. 

Maire  (1896)  210  (outline.) 
BiBLiOGRAPHiE  DE  LA  France.    Joumal  g€n6- 


233 

ral  de  I'lmprimerie  et  de  la  librairie.    Paris, 
[Not  the  same  as  the  system  of  1812.] 
Rouveyre  (1882)  59-63  (detailed  outline)  ; 
Maire  (i8g6)  211-12  (outline.) 

B0I.LETINO  DELLE  PUBLICAZIONE  ITALIANE.   [Each 

number  is  classified.     See  also  the  annual 

summary    for    1901.     Feb.    2,    p.    vi.    The 

BoUetino  is  in  general   identical  with  the 

"Bibliografia  italiana."] 
The  Bookseller.      A  newspaper  of  British 

and  foreign  Literature.    Lond. 

Maire    (1896)    213    (outline    Alphabetical 

subjects.) 
Bookseller,    Newsdealer    and    Stationer. 

New  York.     [Annual  summary.    For  1900, 

Feb.  I,  1901,  p.  583] 

BoRSENBLATT,  F.  den  DEUTSCHEN  BuCH  HANDEL 

.  .  .  Leipzig. 

Maire  (1896)  212  (outline.) 
Brockhaus'  Allgemeine  Bibliographie  Mon- 

ATL.  Verz.    Leipzig. 
HiNRiCHS,    J.     C.      Verzeichness.      Leipzig. 

[The  weekly  nos.  and  half-yearly  v.  table 

represent  substantially  the  same  system.] 

Maire  (1896)  212  (outline.) 
NeDERLANDSCHE    BIBLIOGRAPHIE.     The    Haguc. 
PoLYBiBLiON.     Revuc  bibliographiquc  univer- 

selle.     Paris. 

Maire  (1896)  209. 
The  Publishers'  Circular.    London.    [An- 


234 
nual  summary.    For  1900,  Jan.  5,  1901,  p. 
10.] 
The  Publishers'  Weekly.    New  York.  [An- 
nual summary.    For  1900,  Jan.  26,  1901,  p. 

79-89.] 
Reinwald,  C.    Bulletin  Mensuel  de  la  li- 

BRAiRE  FRANCAiSE.    Paris. 
Revue  bibliographique  belge.    Bruxelles. 

vri.    partial  systems  of  classification. 

It  would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  give  any 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  enormous  num- 
ber of  partial  classifications,  but  this  account 
would  be  incomplete  if  attention  were  not 
called  to  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  these  and 
to  the  great  advantage  that  they  may  be  in  the 
preparation  of  a  general  system.  A  lage  num- 
ber of  the  best  modern  partial  classifications 
are  enlargements  of  some  section  of  the 
Dewey  classification.  This  is  true  of  Ver- 
morel's  minute  and  well  indexed  classification 
of  agriculture,  the  system  of  the  Bibliographia 
Medica,  of  the  Zoological  classification  of  the 
Zurich  Index  and  many  others.  To  this  class 
also  is  to  be  credited  the  new  schedules  for 
science,  with  the  decimal  notation,  which  have 
been  prepared  for  the  Royal  Society,  Bald- 
win's admirable  system  in  the  Journal  of 
Psychology,  etc.    If  we  may  regard  the  sub- 


235 
portions  of  the  Cutter  seventh  expansion  as 
partial  systems,  then  we  must  qualify  the 
above  by  adding  that  these  considerable  frag- 
ments are  among  the  very  best.  And  indeed 
there  are  numberless  others  which  have  no 
particular  reference  to  any  current  system. 

VIII.      SYSTEMS  OF  ALPHABETICAL  CLASSIFICA- 
TION. 

The  strict  alphabetical  classification  by  sub- 
jects demands  a  word  in  conclusion.  While 
by  no  means  a  new  idea,  it  is  in  its  comprehen- 
sive application  to  books  a  distinctly  modern 
development.  The  alphabetical  arrangement 
by  authors  has  been  of  course  the  common 
bibliographical  arrangement  for  a  long  time, 
although  even  this  is  far  from  being  as  old  as 
the  chronological  or  logical  classification.  The 
alphabetical  by  subjects  has  existed  too  for 
a  long  time  in  every  index  and  in  many  dic- 
tionaries of  authors  and  places.  In  its  gen- 
eral application  to  books  it  belongs  to  the 
latter  half  of  the  19th  century,  and  the  most 
distinctive  use  of  it  in  these  latter  days  is 
ii  the  so-called  dictionary  catalog,  now  the 
favorite  form  in  libraries  and  very  generally 
used  in  booksellers'  catalogs  and  works  of 
general  bibliography.  This  form,  which  runs 
authors  and  subjects  into  one  alphabet,  has 
some  of  its  best  known  examples  in  the  cata- 


236 

logs  of  the  Boston  Athenseum,  the  Brooklyn 
and  Peabody  libraries. 

Other  familiar  examples  are  the  American 
Catalogue  (subject  portion),  the  various  in- 
dexes to  periodicals  and  essays  such  as  the 
A.  L.  A.  Index,  Poole,  Jones'  Index  to  Legal 
Periodicals,  The  Review  of  Reviews  Index, 
Jordell  in  France,  Dietrich  in  Germany,  etc., 
etc.  It  is  the  general  form  of  the  periodical 
index,  although  the  Zurich  index  and  the 
proposed  general  index  to  scientific  periodicals 
of  the  Roj'al  Society  are  intended  to  be  classed 
logically,  and  in  general  most  of  the  special 
branch  indexes  are  so  classified.  Every  dic- 
tionary encyclopaedia  is  practically  such  an 
outline  of  alphabetical  classification,  but  al- 
most the  only  system  of  schedules  intended 
purely  for  this  purpose  is  the  A.  L.  A.  "List 
of  subject  headings."  This  is,  in  the  strictest 
sense  of  the  term,  an  example  of  a  system 
of  alphabetical  classification  by  subjects,  the 
most  popular  and  most  unscientific  of  sys- 
tems, the  joy  of  the  general  reader,  the  de- 
spair of  the  specialist,  an  invaluable  system  as 
supplement  or  index  to  the  system  of  logical 
classification,  a  futile  and  embarrassing  sys- 
tem when  the  object  is  exhaustive  research 
and  this  is  the  exclusive  classification. 


INDEX. 

Note. — References    in    small    caps    are   exclusively 
whole  section  references  to  the  various  systems. 

AcHARD,  System  of,   173. 

Aesthetics,  41. 

Aiirfe-MARTiN,  System  of,  179. 

A.  L.  A.  Index,  236. 

A.  L.  A.  List  of  subject  headings,  236. 

Albert,  System  of,  139. 

Alcuin,  System  of,  110. 

Aldessbach  Monastic  Library,  System  of,  157. 

Alexandrian  library,  154,  155. 

Allibone,,  System  of,  208. 

Alphabetical  book  classification,  60. 

Alphabetical  subject  book  classification,  61. 

Alsted,  System  of,  119. 

Ameilhon.  System  of,  170. 

American  catalogue,  236. 

Ampere,  System  of,  136. 

Anonymous-Flint,  System  of,  120. 

Anthropology,  30,  31,  40. 

Araoz,  System  of,  159. 

Arias  Montanus,  System  of,   160. 

Aristotle,    154. 

Aristotle,   System  of,   102. 

Arnold,  System  of,  138. 

Arnott,  System  of,  134-5. 

Art,  definition  of,  3,   13,  26-7. 

Art  ideas,  classification  of,  41. 

Assyrian  libraries,   153. 

Astronomy,   40. 

Athens  National  Library,  System  of,  191. 

Atoms,  33. 

AuGUSTiN,  System  of,  108. 

Austro-Hungarian  Libraries,  System  of,  211. 

Babylonian  libraries,  153. 

Bacon,  Francis,  System  of,  117-8. 

Bacon,  Roger,  System  of,  113-4. 


238 

Baillkt,  System  of,  163. 

Bain,  System  of,  143-4. 

Baldwin,  J.   M.,   Psychological  classification,  234. 

Barbier,  System  of,   172-3. 

Battezzati,  System  of,  192. 

Beccei.t-i,  System  of,  166-7. 

Bede,  System  of,  iio. 

Bentham,  System  of,  129-30. 

Berciiorius,  System  of,  114. 

Berg,  von,  System  of,  125. 

Berlin  Royal  Library,  System  of,  209. 

Bibliographia  medica,  234. 

Bibliographical  periodicals,  232  sq. 

Bibliographical  systems,  93. 

Bibliographic  de  Belgique,  232. 

Bibliographic  de  la  France,  232. 

BiBLIOGRAPHIE    DE    LA    FRANCE,    SySTEM    OF,    l/S, 
BiBLIOTHfeQUE    CARDINAL,    SySTEM    OF,    2I4. 
BlBLIOTHfeQUE    NatIONALE,    PaHIS,    SySTEM    OF,    I71-2. 

Bielefield,  System  of,  123. 

Binding-classification  of  books,  62. 

Biology,  30,  31,  40. 

Bliedener,  System  of,   180. 

Bodleian  Library,  System  of,  214. 

Bollctino  delle  pub.  ital.,  233. 

Bonaventure,  St.,  System  of,  112-3. 

Bonazzi,  System  of,  218-9. 

Bonazzi,  system  of,  87. 

Book  classification,  46  sq.,  51;  the  acme  of  library  sci- 
ence, 88;  an  aid  to  research,  56;  an  art,  46,  49; 
close  vs.  broad,  77  sq. ;  criteria  of,  86  sq. ;  econo- 
my >3f.  537;  educational  value  of,  57-8;  kinds  of, 
60  .=>q. ;  objects  and  importance  of,  53;  on  the 
shelves,  83  sq. ;  order  of  application  of  principles, 
65-7;  and  theoretical,  67  sq. 

Books  as  fossil  ideas,  26,  47. 

Bookseller,  233. 

Bookseller,  newsdealer  and  stationer,  233. 

Borsenblatt,  233. 

Boston  Athenaeum  Library  catalogue,  236. 

Bouilleaud,  System  of,  162-3. 

Bourdeau,  System  of,  146. 

Breadth' classification  of  books,  64. 

British  Museum,  System  of,  179. 


239 

Broad  classification,  77  sq. 

Brockhaus'  Allgcmeine  Bibliog.,  233. 

Brooklyn  Library  catalog^ue,  236. 

Brown,  System  or,  223-4. 

Bkownbill,  System  of,  212-3. 

Brunet,  System  of,  174-5. 

Bdesch,  System  of,  123. 

Buhi.e,  System  of,  125. 

Buildings,  library,  and  classification,  74  sq. 

BURDACH,    Sy.STEM    OF,    1 28. 

Butenschoen,  System  of,  127. 

Cailimachus,  System  of,  155. 

Campanella..  System  of,  119. 

Camus,  System  of,  169-70. 

Cantoni,  System  of,  144. 

Cap  ELLA,  System  of,  108. 

Card  classification,  51,  83. 

Cardile,  System  of,  185. 

Casiri,  System  of,  167. 

Cassiodorus,  System  of,  108-9. 

Cave,  System  of,  148. 

Cells,   37. 

Cels,  System  of,  168. 

Chambers,  System  of,  122. 

Character  and  likeness,  14. 

Chemistry,  40. 

Christology,  43. 

Christ,  the  historic,  37. 

Chronological  classification  of  books,  61,  64. 

Church,  the,  37-8. 

Classification,  alphabetical,  11,  235;  an  hypothetical, 
29;  and  the  library  building,  74  sq.;  artificial,  9; 
bibliographic,  93;  bibliothetic,  93;  chronological, 
10;  classification  of,  93;  dynamic,  11;  encyclopaedic, 
93;  evolutionary,  11;  genetic,  10;  geometrical,  10; 
historical,  10;  kinds  of,  8  sq.,  60  sq.;  laws  or 
principles  of,  11;  literature  of,  94  sq.;  logical,  9; 
mathematical,  11;  nature  of,  i;  "order"  vs.,  18; 
partial,  9,  234;  pedagogic,  93;  philosophical,  93; 
practical,  46,  51,  iS3  sq.;  systems  of,  91-236;  the- 
oretical, 51,  100  sq.  See  also  Book-classification 
and  Card-classification. 

Classifying,  85. 

Cleanthes,  System  of,  105. 


240 

Clemens,  System  of,  159-60. 

Close  classification,  77  sq. 

CoccHi,  System  of,  166. 

CoiERiDGE,  System  of,  130-31. 

Cologne  Public  Library,  System  of,  213. 

Color  classification  of  books,  62. 

CoMENius,  System  of,  120. 

Comte,  System  of,  133-4. 

Conservatism  in  classifying,  70-2. 

Conservatism  and  intellectual  petrifaction,  47. 

CoNii,  System  of,  145. 

Corleo,  System  of,  146. 

Cosmic  history,  33. 

Cosmology,  30,   31,  43. 

CosTE,  System  of,  170. 

CouRNOT,  System  of,  140. 

Crucemannus,  System  of,  167. 

Cutter,  System  of,  201-7. 

Cutter,  system  of  (E.  C.  or  expansive  classification), 

88,  235. 
D'Alembert,  System  of,  122-3. 
Dante,  System  of,  114. 
Daunou,  System  of,  170. 

D.  C.  =  Dewey  (or  Decimal)  classification. 
De  Bure,  System  of,  168. 

Decimal  classification.  See  Dewey  decimal  classifi- 
cation. 

Delisle,  System  of,  217-8. 

De.midoff,  v..  System  of,  173. 

Denis,  System  of,  168. 

Descai:tes,  System  of,  119-20. 

Destutt  de  Tracy,  System  of,  129. 

Dewey,  System  of,  193-200. 

Dewey  Decimal  Classification  (D.  C.  or  Decimal 
Classification),  71,  76,  88. 

Dictionary  catalogue,  235. 

Dieserud,  System  of,  224. 

Di  Giovanni,  System  of,  141. 

Dove,  System  of,  139. 

Earth,  the,  36. 

E.  C.  =  Expansive  (or  Cutter)  Classification. 
Ecclesiology,  43. 

Economy  of  book  classification,  53-7. 
Edmands,  System  of,  210. 


341 

Kducation,  42. 

Edwards,  System  of,  189. 

Epistemology,  41. 

Erdmann,  System  of,  145-6. 

Ersch,  System  of.     See  Schutz-Hufelund  and  Ers^h, 

EscHENBURC.  System  of,  125. 

Estienne,  System  of,   158. 

Ether,  34. 

Ethics,   41. 

Evolution,  law  of,   15. 

Evolutionary  order,  72-4. 

Expansive  classification.     See  Cutter,   system  of. 

Eyre,   System  of,   189. 

Fabri,  System  of,  161. 

Ferrarese,  System  of,  135. 

Ferrario,  System  of,  171. 

J'^iCHET,  System  of,  120. 

Financial-value  classification  of  books,  64. 

Fiske.  System  of,  145. 

Fletcher,  System  of,  216-7. 

Foerstermann,  System  of,  192-3. 

Fontanini,  System  of,  165. 

Form-classification  of  books,  63. 

Formey,  System  of,  166. 

Fortia  d'Urban,  System  of,  176. 

Fragility  of  books  in  classification,  64. 

Francke,  System  of,   167. 

Frankfort  City  Library,  System  of,  214. 

Frati,  System  of,  214-5. 

French  Institute,  System  of,  222. 

French  Lyc^es,  System  of,  22a. 

Friedrich,  System  of,  178.  ' 

Frisius,  System  of,  161. 

Frobesius,  System  of,  166. 

Gar,  System  of,  190. 

Gasnier,  System  of,  162. 

Genesis,  law  of,  13. 

Geograohical  book  classification,  61. 

Gesner,  System  of,   115-6. 

GioBESTi,  System  of,  137. 

Girard,  System  of,  122. 

Giratjlt,  System  of,  174. 

Glanville,  System  of,  114. 

Goblot,  System  op,  150. 

16 


242 
Grassauer    (Vienna   University   Library),   System 

OF,    2X8. 

Cruder,  System  of,  132. 

Halle  system,  87. 

Hamburg  Commercial  Library,  System  of,  185. 

Hamilton,  System  of,  136. 

Harms,  System  of,  143. 

Harris,  G.  W.,  System  of,  220. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  System  of,  191-2. 

Hartwig,  System  of,  215-6. 

Hasse,  System  of,  130. 

Hebrew  canon,  153. 

Hefter,  System  of,  127. 

Hegel,  System  of,  132. 

Heidelberg  University  Library,  System  of,  212. 

Helfferich,  System  of,  140. 

IIii.L,  System  of,  140. 

Hinrichs'   Vcrzeichniss,   233. 

History,  law  of,   is. 

HoBEES,  Systfm  of,  120. 

Homology,   13. 

HoRNE,  First  system  of,  175. 

HoRNE,  Second  system  of,   176-7. 

Hottinger,  System  of,  161. 

Hrabanus  Maurus,  System  of,  iio-ii. 

Hugo  de  S.  Victore,  System  of,   111-12. 

Hylology,  30,  31. 

Ideas,    order   of,    27-9;    idea-cells,    37;    as   things,    3, 

26  sq.;  and  outer  things,  19-22. 
Identity  more  than  likeness,  6. 
Ilari,  System  of,  184. 
Imperial   Library   of   St.    Petersburg,    System   or, 

218. 
Interest-classification  of  books,  63. 
Ions   (or  corpuscles),  33-4. 
Isidore  of  Seville,  System  of,  109. 
Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies,  System  of,  2,09. 
Jacob,  System  of,  161. 
Jaesche,  System  of,  130. 
Jannelli,  System  of,  132. 
Jones'  index,  236. 
Kant,  System  of,  124. 
KiRCHNER,  System  of,  137-8. 
Kluegel,  System  of,  124. 


243 

Knowledge,  41. 

Knowledge  and  likeness,  13-14. 

Kraus,  System  of,  128. 

Krug,  System  of,   125-6. 

Labanca,  System  of,  145. 

La  Croix  du  Maine,  System  of,  158-9. 

Laire,  System  of,  171. 

Latini,  System  of,  113. 

Law,  definition  of,  11. 

Lebas,  System  of,  187. 

Legipontius,  System  of,  167. 

Lehmann  und  Petersen,  System  of,  181. 

Leibnitz,  System  of,  165. 

Leipziger  "Messkatalog,"  System  of,  186. 

Lesley,  System  of,  191. 

Levot,  System  of,  179-80. 

Likeness,  5;  law  of.  12-15,  6S.  86. 

Lindsay,  System  of,  138. 

Linguistic  classification  of  books,  64. 

Literary- value   classification  of  books,   63. 

Literature  of  classification,  94  sq. 

Locke,  System  of,   121. 

LoEWE,  System  of,  137. 

Logical  book  classification,  60. 

Lomeier,  System  of,  162. 

London,  System  of,  161. 

London  Institution,  System  of,  178. 

LoNGO,  System  of,  133. 

LoRENZ,  System  of,  208. 

LvBBOCK,  System  of,  136-7. 

Mabunu.s,  System  of,  161. 

Madrid  Natxonai   Library,  System  of,  193. 

Maffei,  System  of,  115. 

Manasia,  System  of,  192. 

Manutius,  Systfm  of,  157. 

Marchand,  System  of,  164. 

Martin,  CiAbp.,  System  of,  164. 

Massol,  System  of,  172. 

Mathematics,  39. 

Maunsell,  System  of,  159. 

Mazauin  Library,  System  of,  211. 

MEDiAtv.\L  libraries.  System  of,   156. 

Meinecke,  System  of,  124. 

Merleker,  System  of,  188. 


244 

Merlin,  System  of,  182-4. 
Meusel,  System  of,  126. 
Microcosm,  28. 

MiDDLETON,  System  of,  165-6. 
MiRA,  System  of,  190. 
Molecules,  35. 

Monti.inot,  de.  System  of,  123. 
MoRHOF,  System  of,  163. 
MoRTiLLARO,  System  of,  177. 
Motion,  39. 

MuNtcH  Royal  Library,  System  of,  184. 
MuQUARDT,  System  of,  180. 
Namur,  First  system  of,  178. 
Namur,  Second  system  of,  180. 
Narbone,  System  of,  185. 
Natural  book  classification,  60. 
Nature  and  environment,  3,  s.  12. 
Naud^,  System  of,  160. 
Naville,  System  of,  150-1. 
Nederlandsche  bibliographie,  233. 
NizoLio,  System  of,  116. 
Notation,  nature  of  a,  80  sq. 
Ogle,  System  of,  213. 
Oken,  System  of,  127. 
Olenin,  System  of,  173. 

Order    of    the    sciences    stated,    43-4;    graphic    state- 
ment, 44. 
Order  vs.  Classification,   18. 
Orthodoxy  in  book  classification,  63. 
Ortloff,  System  of,  128. 
Ott,  System  of,  163. 
Ottino,  System  of,  220. 
Palermo,  System  of,  187. 

Palermo  Communal  Library,  System  of,  188. 
Pampuilis,  System  of,  135. 
Parent,  System  of,  171. 
Paris  Arsenal  Library,  System  of,  212. 
Paris  City  Library,  System  of,  223. 
Paris  Free  Libraries,   System  of,  223. 
Paris  Municipal  Library,  System  of,  223. 
Paris  Museum  of  Natural  History,  System  of,  223. 
Paris,  Paulin,  System  of,  185. 
Park,  System  of,  182. 
Peabody  Institute  catalog^ue,  236. 


245 

Pearson,  System  of,  151-2. 
Peccfnini,  System  of,  141. 
Peignot,  System  of,  172. 
Perkins,  System  of,  208-9. 
Personality,  human,  37. 
Petziioldt,  System  of,  191. 
Peypetti,  System  of,  144-5. 
Philo,  System  of,  io6. 
Physics,  39. 
PiLZ,  System  of,  187. 
Pipitone,  System  of,  177. 
Planetary  systems,  36. 
Plato,  System  of,  ioi. 
Pliny,  System  of,  106. 

POLIZIANO,    Sy.'.TEM    of,    II4-I5. 

Polybiblion,  233. 

Poole's  Index,  236. 

PoRPHYP.Y,  System  of,  106-7. 

Predari,  System  of,  141. 

Preusker,  System  of,  180-81. 

Princeton  University  Library,  System  of,  224-32. 

Protoplasm,  37. 

Proudhon,  System  of,  138. 

PsELLus,  System  of,  hi. 

Public  Libraries  of  France,  First  system  for,  211. 

Public  Libraries  of   France,   Second  system   for, 

217. 
Publishers'  Circular,  233. 
Publishers'  Weekly,  234. 
Quinn-Brcwn,  System  of,  222. 
QuiKTiLiA.v,  System  of,  106. 
Ramsay,  System  of,  139. 

Regnault-Warin,  and  others.  System  of,  126. 
Reimarus.  System  of,  123. 
Keinwald's  Bulletin  Mensuel,  234. 
Reisch,  System  of,  115. 
Renouvier,  System  of,  141. 
Research,  economy  in,  55-57. 
Resemblance  less  than  likeness,   7. 
Reuss,  System  or,  177. 
Review  of  Reviews   Index,   236. 
Revue  bibliographique  Beige,  234. 
Rhode,  System  of,  159. 
Ribot,  System  of,  144. 


246 

Richardson,  System  of,  152. 

RiCHTEK,  System  of,  139. 

RosMiNi,  System  of,  135-36. 

Rossi,  System  of,  181-2. 

rostgaard,  system  of,  164. 

Roth,  System  of,  125. 

Rowell,  system  of,  87. 

Rowell,  System  of,  220-22. 

Royal  Society,  234,  236. 

RuEDiGER,  System  of,  132. 

St.   Emmerau  at  Ratisbon,   Monastic  library  of. 

System  of,  157. 
St.  Genevieve  Library,  System  of,  212. 
St.  Requier,  Monastic  library  of.  System  of,  156. 
Sameness  more  than  likeness,  6. 
Savigny,  de.  System  of,  116-7. 
ScHELLiNG,  System  of,  127. 
Schleiermacher,  System  of,  185-6. 
ScHMiD,  C.  C.  E.,  System  of,  129. 
ScHMiD,  C.  H.,  System  of,  123-4. 
ScHMiTZ,  System  of,  141. 
Scholastic  System,  112. 
Schopenhauer,  System  of,  133. 
Schrettinger,  System  of,  176. 
Schuetz-Hufeland  und  Ersch,  System  of,  169. 
Schwartz,  System  of,  200-1. 
Sciences,   order  of,    17   sq. ;   divisions  and  unity  of, 

17;  the  order  of  things,   18. 
Seizinger,  System  of,  190. 
Shields,  System  of,  146. 
Similarity  less  than  likeness,   7. 
Simon,  System  of,   128. 
SioN  College,  System  of,  213-4. 
Size  classification  of  books,  61. 
Smith,  Lloyd  P.,  System  of,  209-10. 
Societies,  37. 
Society  and  likeness,  14. 
Sociology,  40. 

sonnenschein,  system  of,  2i9. 
Spencer,  System  of,  142-3. 
Speusippus,  System  of,  104. 
Stadler,  System  of,  148-50. 
Stanley,  System  of,  146. 
Starrabba,  System  of,  190. 


247 

Steffenhagen,  System  of,  210. 

Stewart,  System  of,  129. 

Strassburg  University  Library,  System  of,  217. 

Subdivisions,  principles  of,  76;  degree  and  propor- 
tion in,  t;  sq. 

Sulzer,  System  of,  122. 

Swedish  Public  Library,  System  of,  218. 

Syon  Mo  ^f aster y.  System  of,  157-8. 

Tableau  compare  des  productions  bibliographiques. 
System  of,   177. 

Taschkoeprisade,  System  of,  116. 

Techener,  System  of,  191. 

Temple  libraries,  153. 

Teubner,  System  of,  220. 

Theology,  30,  31,  43. 

Theology  as  a  science,  31. 

Theoretical  classification  vs.  book  classification,  67 
sq. ;  89. 

Thickness  of  books  in  classification,  64. 

Thi^baut,  System  of,  126. 

Thienemann,  System  of,  178. 

Thing,  a,  definition  of,  2. 

Thompson,  System  of,  147, 

Thoth  literature,  153. 

Thun,  System  of,  176. 

Tiele,  System  of,  188. 

Time,  idea  of,  39. 

Toepfer,  System  of,  128. 

Trffler,  .System  of,  158. 

Troemel,  System  of,  188. 

Truebner,  System  of,  i8g. 

Unity  of  things  organic,  22. 

Universe,  history  of,  33. 

Universe  includes  past  things,  24. 

Universe,  mechanical,  25;  organic,  22. 

Valdarini,  System  of,  144. 

Valla,  System  of,   115. 

Vanegas,  Sy.stem  of,  IIS. 

Varro,  System  of,  105. 

Ventura,  System  of,   135.       . 

Vermorel,  system  of,  234. 

Vico,  System  of,  121. 

Vienna  Royal  Library,  System  of,  222. 

Vincent  of  Beauvais,  System  of,  113. 


248 

Vincent.  Benj.,  System  of,  i88. 
VoiGT,  System  of,  138. 
Vortex  atoms,  33. 
Wai.ckenaer,  System  of,   186. 
Weight-classification  of  books,  64. 
Weizel,  System  of,  121. 
Whewell,  System  of,  137. 
Wiener,  System  of,  186. 
Wilson,  System  of,  140. 
Wolfenbuettel,  System  of,  167. 
Wolff,   System  of,   121. 
Wundt,  System  of,  147. 
WuTTiG,  System  of,  190. 
Xenocrates,  System  of,  105. 
Zara,   System  of,   119. 
Zeller,  System  of,  143. 
Zeno,  System  of,  103. 
Zoology,  40. 
Zurich  index,  234,  236. 


11B152 


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